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PubMed1992

Efficacy of awareness of strategy and overt verbalization for recall by kindergarten students.

Two prevailing models for teaching memory strategies for remembering were compared for two kindergarten classes (45 boys, 30 girls). A third class provided a control. One class received instruction in specific and efficacious strategies for recall on three discrete tasks: sequential memory, paired-associate memory, and clustering recall. The second class received the same instruction embedded in an overt verbalization procedure adapted form Bash and Camp (1985). The control class received as much practice as the two instructional groups but no instruction on strategy or overt verbalization. Significant gains in memory were made on paired associates at posttest for both the strategy-only group and the overt-verbalization group. Overt verbalization inhibits recall on paired associates at delayed posttest and its effect on sequential memory at posttest remains equivocal.

Awareness↗
PubMedDate not supplied

[Sequential verbal memory for three and four syllables in school children].

BACKGROUND: Auditory memory ability. AIM: To characterize the auditory memory ability for verbal sequences in children with ages ranging from 3 to 12 years. METHOD: A memory test for verbal sequences was used, as well as a variation with the addition of one syllable to each sequence. Participants were 223 students of public and private schools. RESULTS: All subjects repeated at least two out of the three sequences of three syllables. At the age of nine, they were capable of repeating all of the three sequences. At the age of six, they repeated at least two out of the three sequences of four syllables. CONCLUSION: The behavioral responses to verbal sounds presented in sequences, improves as children grow older. Children of private schools demonstrated an earlier development of this ability.

Age Factors↗
PubMed1984

Performance of goldfish (Carassius auratus) in patterned sequences of rewarded and nonrewarded trials.

The performance of goldfish was studied in a series of experiments with patterned sequences of reward (R) and nonreward (N) for response to a given stimulus (S3). Trials with two other, readily discriminable stimuli, response to one always rewarded and response to the second never rewarded, were interpolated in such a way that the outcome of any S3 trial could not be predicted from the events of the immediately preceding trial. The main purpose was to look for control of response to S3 based on memory of N like that found in previous work with pigeons. In Experiments 1 and 2, blocks of R and N trials with S3 were programmed, R trials in the first half of each session and N in the last half, or N trials in the first half and R in the last half. In Experiment 3, successive acquisition and extinction of response to S3 was studied, with the N-to-R and R-to-N transitions either within sessions or between sessions. In Experiment 4, the effects of partial and consistent reinforcement on extinction of response to S3 were compared. The results obtained are similar in important respects to those for pigeons but different in their failure to demonstrate control of performance by memory of N.

Animals↗
PubMed1984

Structural and functional perspectives on classification and seriation in psychotic and normal children.

This study describes a strategy for examining cognitive functioning in psychotic and normal children without the usual confounding effects of marked differences in cognitive structure that occur when children of the same age are compared. Participants were 14 psychotic children, 12 males and 2 females, mean age 9-2, matched with normal children at preoperational and concrete operational stage levels on a set of Piagetian classification tasks. The mean age of the normal children was 6-4, replicating the usually found developmental delay in psychotic samples. Participants were then compared on both structural level and functional abilities on a set of tasks involving seriation of sticks; the higher-level children were also administered a seriation drawing task. Analysis of children's processes of seriating and seriation drawings indicated that over and above the structural retardation, psychotic children at all levels showed functional deficits, especially in the use of anticipatory imagery. The implications for general developmental theory are that progress in structural development is not sufficient for imaginal development, and that structural development of logical concepts is relatively independent of the development of imagery. It was suggested that "thought disorder" may not be a disordered structure of thinking or a retardation in psychotic populations but rather a mismatch between higher-level logical structures and lower-level functions.

Autistic Disorder↗
PubMed2001

Empirical analysis of the intrinsic-extrinsic distinction of judgments of learning (JOLs): effects of relatedness and serial position on JOLs.

A. Koriat's (1997) cue-utilization framework provided a significant advance in understanding how people make judgments of learning (JOLs). A major distinction is made between intrinsic and extrinsic cues. JOLs are predicted to be sensitive to intrinsic cues (e.g., item relatedness) and less sensitive to extrinsic cues (e.g., serial position) because JOLs are comparative across items in a list. The authors evaluated predictions by having people make JOLs after studying either related (poker-flush) or unrelated (dog-spoon) items. Although some outcomes confirmed these predictions, others could not be readily explained by the framework. Namely, relatedness influenced JOLs even when manipulated between participants, primacy effects were evident on JOLs, and the order in which blocks of items were presented (either all related items first or all unrelated items first) influenced JOLs. The authors discuss the framework in relation to these and other outcomes.

Adult↗
PubMed1991

Allocation of study time and recall by learning disabled and nondisabled children of different ages.

Study time and recall by learning-disabled and nondisabled children of five different ages were examined in a task requiring recall of digits that were presented at the child's own rate. Recall increased with age and was significantly higher by nondisabled than disabled children, particularly at older ages. As additional digits of each sequence were presented, study time by 8-year-old disabled and nondisabled groups were relatively constant, increased in older disabled and nondisabled children, but increased more in older nondisabled children than older learning disabled children. Instructions in hierarchical grouping of digits increased recall by all groups to a similar degree, but the increase by younger children and learning disabled children was associated with longer study times. The results suggest that allocation of study time and recall are developmentally delayed in learning disabled children.

Achievement↗
PubMed1982

[The role of paradoxical sleep in learning in man].

The authors have tried to specify the role of paradoxical sleep (PS) in the learning process in man. For their study they used 12 medical students. Three polygraphic recordings of sleep were performed over 3 consecutive days. The night of the third day was preceded by the learning test (a series of 4 tests). A simultaneous study was carried out of the effects of learning on sleep and vice versa. This study does not show any significant increase in the total time of paradoxical sleep during the night which followed the learning. Only the second period of PS was increased. Thus, this research does not seem to confirm the results obtained in animals. But this disagreement may be explained by the limited number of subjects or by the contents of the tests used. On the other hand, the authors did obtain results which seem to confirm the favourable influence of sleep as a whole on the learning process.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1984

Representation of linear orders.

Two binary classification tasks were used to explore the associative structure of linear orders. In Experiment 1, college students classified English letters as targets or nontargets, the targets being consecutive letters of the alphabet. The time to reject nontargets was a decreasing function of the distance from the target set, suggesting response interference mediated by automatic associations from the target to the nontarget letters. The way in which this interference effect depended on the placement of the boundaries between the target and nontarget sets revealed the relative strengths of individual interletter associations. In Experiment 2, students were assigned novel linear orders composed of letterlike symbols and asked to classify pairs of symbols as being adjacent or nonadjacent in the assigned sequence. Reaction time was found to be a joint function of the distance between any pair of symbols and the relative positions of those symbols within the sequence. The effects of both distance and position decreased systematically over 6 days of practice with a particular order, beginning at a level typical of unfamiliar orders and converging on a level characteristic of familiar orders such as letters and digits. These results provide an empirical unification of two previously disparate sets of findings in the literature on linear orders, those concerning familiar and unfamiliar orders, and the systematic transition between the two patterns of results suggests the gradual integration of a new associative structure.

Adult↗
PubMed1996

Alignment-based nonmonotonicities in similarity.

According to the assumption of monotonicity in similarity judgments, adding a shared feature in common to 2 items should never decrease their similarity. Violations of monotonicity are not predicted by feature- or dimension-based models but can be accommodated by alignment-based models in which the parts of one compared display are placed in correspondence with the parts of the other display. In 2 experiments, evidence for nonmonotonicities is obtained that is generally consistent with the alignment-based model SIAM (similarity as interactive activation and mapping; R.L. Goldstone, 1994). The calculation of similarity in this model involves an interactive activation process whereby correspondences between the parts of compared displays mutually and concurrently influence each other. As SIAM predicts, the occurrence of nonmonotonicities depends on perceptual similarity of features and the duration of presented comparison.

Adult↗
PubMed2002

Temporal order relations in language comprehension.

The role of temporal orientation (chronological or reverse) and chronological distance (close, intermediate, or distant) in general event knowledge on language comprehension was examined. Experiment 1 used a relation-recognition paradigm in which the comprehension of a target event could be facilitated or disrupted by the temporal orientation implied by the prior information. Experiments 2 and 3 used a sentence-probe-recognition paradigm in which the temporal orientation, the stimulus onset asynchrony, and the chronological distance between the sentence event and the probe event were manipulated. The results demonstrated that readers used temporal information conveyed by their knowledge to construct situation models while comprehending sentences. The internal temporal dimension appeared to be directional and reflected the chronological distance between everyday events.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

From recurrent choice to skill learning: a reinforcement-learning model.

The authors propose a reinforcement-learning mechanism as a model for recurrent choice and extend it to account for skill learning. The model was inspired by recent research in neurophysiological studies of the basal ganglia and provides an integrated explanation of recurrent choice behavior and skill learning. The behavior includes effects of differential probabilities, magnitudes, variabilities, and delay of reinforcement. The model can also produce the violation of independence, preference reversals, and the goal gradient of reinforcement in maze learning. An experiment was conducted to study learning of action sequences in a multistep task. The fit of the model to the data demonstrated its ability to account for complex skill learning. The advantages of incorporating the mechanism into a larger cognitive architecture are discussed.

Animals↗