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PubMed1983

Relative toxicity of inhaled metal sulfate salts for pulmonary macrophages.

The effects of metal sulfate aerosols on respiratory defense mechanisms in hamsters were studied. Pulmonary macrophage phagocytic rates were measured by determining the in vivo uptake of radioactive colloidal gold (198Au) 1, 24, or 48 h after a single 4-h exposure. The concentrations of sulfate aerosols causing a 50% inhibition in pulmonary macrophage endocytosis (EC50) were determined. When hamsters were exposed for 4 h to cupric sulfate (greater than or equal to 4.8 mg/m3), zinc sulfate (greater than or equal to 3.1 mg/m3), ferric sulfate (greater than or equal to 7.8 mg/m3), or zinc ammonium sulfate (greater than or equal to 10.0 mg/m3), macrophage endocytosis was significantly reduced 1 h after exposure compared with that in unexposed control animals. Although the response was variable, 24 h after exposures to the higher sulfate concentrations the percent of gold ingested by pulmonary macrophages remained depressed. By 48 h, the rate of macrophage endocytosis in hamsters had returned to normal control values except in hamsters exposed to 4.8 mg/m3 cupric sulfate or 9.8 mg/m3 ferric sulfate. These hamsters showed significant increases in phagocytosis. The EC50 values in milligrams of sulfate per cubic meter for cupric sulfate, zinc sulfate, ferric sulfate, and zinc ammonium sulfate were 2.7, 4.5, 7.5, and 17.9, respectively. These results are negatively correlated with the ranking of sulfates using the criteria of relative irritant potency, as measured by increases in pulmonary flow resistance. Thus, rankings of related chemical structures are not absolute. Their relative toxicities vary depending on the end point selected.

Aerosols↗
PubMed1990

[Radiolabeling and biodistribution of 62Cu-dithiocarbamate--an application for the new 62Zn/62Cu generator].

The newly developed 62Zn/62Cu generator system has made available the production of the short-lived 62Cu (T1/2 = 9.8 min) positron radionuclide, eluted as 62Cu-glycine. In the search for 62Cu labeled radiopharmaceuticals for positron CT (PET) brain diagnostic studies, two ligands N,N-diethyl- and N,N-dimethyl-dithiocarbamic acid (DDC and DmDC) were selected, based on their Cu chelating abilities and the neutral lipophilic character of their copper chelates. In the present work, an in vitro study with non-radioactive Cu-glycine showed that both ligands easily formed the stable, neutral Cu-DDC and Cu-DmDC chelates (1:2 metal-ligand complexes) based on the ligand exchange reaction. Then the 62Zn/62Cu generator eluate, the 62Cu-glycine was used for the radiolabeling of DDC and DmDC. The following HPLC analysis revealed that the ligand exchange reaction proceeded rapidly; the radiochemical purities of 62Cu-DDC and 62Cu-DmDC were extremely high (non-detectable 62Cu-glycine) and both chelates were more lipophilic than 62Cu-glycine. The mouse biodistribution of both radiolabeled compounds, 62Cu-DDC and 62Cu-DmDC indicated a brain accumulation of 2.8 and 5.3 times higher than 62Cu-glycine, 15 min post injection, respectively. The brain accumulation observed with both 62Cu-DDC and 62Cu-DmDC might be due to their stable, neutral and lipophylic character; the latter enhanced by the presence of the methylated side chains. The gathered results indicated the applicability of dithiocarbamic acid derivatives in the production of new 62Cu-labeled compounds using the 62Zn/62Cu generator system based on the ligand exchange reaction with 62Cu-glycine eluate. Further studies with Cu-dithiocarbamic acid derivatives for development of new generator-produced 62Cu positron radiopharmaceuticals can be recalled.

Animals↗
PubMedDate not supplied

[Cardiopathy caused by physical or chemical agents].

BACKGROUND: Occupational cardiovascular diseases do not possess any specific clinical and physiopathogenetic features. OBJECTIVES: The paper summarizes the results of the most recent studies on chemical and physical cardiovascular risks, and assesses the current degree of risk for occupational cardiovascular disease. METHODS: Scientific literature and medline databases on this topic were carefully considered. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION: The scientific literature often provides interesting information on the cardiotoxicity of chemical and physical agents in workplaces; however, a large amount of data refers to high-dose exposures. On the contrary, nowadays exposure conditions have progressively improved and toxic concentrations in air in most cases are below the environmental threshold limit values. In workplaces multiple exposures to different cardiovascular risks, both occupational and non-occupational, are often present simultaneously and these cardiovascular diseases have not been adequately studied in comparison to other occupational organic and systemic diseases. Moreover, possible interferences between occupational cardiotoxic substances and cardiological therapy are still poorly investigated, even though such situations frequently occur.

Air Pollutants, Occupational↗
PubMed2004

(99m)Tc human IgG radiolabelled by HYNIC. Biodistribution and scintigraphy of experimentally induced inflammatory lesions in animal model.

BACKGROUND: Our goal was the efficient labelling of highly purified human gammaglobulin. This radioactive protein fraction can be used as a basic compound of radiopharmaceutical formulation for inflammation lesion diagnosis. This application was experimentally illustrated in animal models with artificially induced inflammatory lesions after turpentine oil injection into mouse leg muscle. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Hydrazine nicotinamine derivative of human gammaglobulin (IgG-HYNIC) was synthesized according to Abrams method. The radionuclide: technetium (99m)Tc has been introduced into protein molecules by indirect method incorporation in phosphate buffer, pH 7.4, in the presence of stannous chloride as a reducing agent for sodium pertechnetate, and EDTA as a coligand. Radiochemical purity was estimated by thin layer chromatography. The stability of labelled IgG-HYNIC derivative in human serum in presence of copper, cobalt, iron and manganum salts was analyzed by HPLC method (BioSEP SEC 4000, eluent: 0.1 mol/L phosphate). Inflammation lesions were induced in Balb/3 mice muscles by injection of 0.2 ml turpentine oil into the leg muscle. Five days later, inflammation lesions were visualized by hIgG-HYNIC- (99m)Tc injections. The tracer accumulation in tissue was evaluated by gamma camera at 1 to 24 hour intervals. RESULTS: Efficiency of technetium99m Tc human gammaglobulin labelling (pH 7.4, temp. 37 degrees C) was strictly dependant on ligand and coligand presence in the reaction mixture. Labelling of IgG molecules without any supplements resulted in very low efficiency, never exceeding the range of 5%. Presence of EDTA or hydrazine nicotinamide (HYNIC) conjugated with IgG increased radiolabelling efficiency to 50%. IgG-HYNIC derivative in EDTA presence enables us to reach value above 95% radiochemical purity. Stability of IgG-HYNIC derivative labelled with technetium (99m) Tc decreased rapidly in serum in time--up to 70% of initial value in 30 minutes and only 20% during further 4 hr incubation. This means that as much as 80% of radiotracer present in IgG molecules has been dissociated during incubation with serum. This forced us to find proper conditions for improving the stability of radioactive IgG-HYNIC conjugate in circulating serum for at least six hours. It was achieved by using a reaction medium supplement with divalent metal cations in the following compounds: MgCl2, CoSO4, Cu (NO3)2 and FeCl2 in equimolar ratio to EDTA. Scintigraphy of (99m)Tc gammaglobulin in artificially induced inflammatory lesions of mouse thigh muscle showed a 4 times higher accumulation of the tracer after 6 hours post injection, and 6 times higher after 24 hours. CONCLUSIONS: A human gammaglobulin derivative (hIgG-HYNIC) labelled with technetium (99m)Tc by indirect method with high radiochemical purity can be a basic compound of formulation for infection/inflammation scintigraphy.

Animals↗
PubMed1987

Tissue decorporation of polonium-210 in rats by DMPA.

Polonium-210 exposures, although rare, have occurred due to accidents in nuclear working environments. This alpha emitting radioactive element can bind thiols and thiol-containing proteins in vivo. Since thiol-containing chelating agents compete with many thiols for heavy metals, a number of these chelating agents have been investigated as protective agents against the lethal effects of 210Po and as tissue decorporating agents for it. Rats given 210Po (40 microCi/kg) ip had a median survival time (mst) of 39 days. The mst was increased to 106 days when N-(2,3-dimercaptopropyl)phthalamidic acid (DMPA), meso-dimercaptosuccinic acid (DMSA) or the Na salt of 2,3-dimercapto-1-propanesulfonic acid (DMPS) was administered sc (p less than .002). Decorporation studies were performed by giving rats 210Po (0.4 microCi) sc, followed by a series of thiol injections beginning one hour later. After 21 days, kidney levels of 210Po in rats given DMPA were only 28% of those of the untreated controls and significantly lower than those receiving DMSA, DMPS, N-acetyl-L-cysteine, or WR2721. After DMPA treatment, the 210Po levels of the spleen were 25% of the saline-treated control. DMPA appears to be a new and consistent decorporating agent for polonium-210.

Animals↗
PubMed2004

Dosimetry of metal tritide particles as evaluated by the ICRP 66 model and a biokinetic model from laboratory rats.

Internal radiation from inhalation of metal tritide aerosols may present a significant radiation protection problem for nuclear facility workers. Dose was evaluated for three metal tritides: hafnium, titanium, and zirconium. The study included in vitro and in vivo exposures. The inhalation doses for the three materials were calculated by using the ICRP 66 lung model. The doses also were evaluated by a biokinetic model, which was developed according to the results of animal studies. Results showed that the hafnium tritide particles were the most dense but they had a lower dissolution rate and a higher retention rate. Among these three tritides, hafnium was classified as a Type S material according to the ICRP 66 publication, whereas titanium and zirconium ranked between Type M and F materials. The dissolution rate of hafnium tritide appeared to agree well with the in vitro and in vivo studies. The dissolution rates of the other two materials in the in vitro studies were a little higher than those of the in vivo studies. The doses calculated by the ICRP 66 model for all materials were approximately two orders smaller than the doses obtained by the animal studies. This bias was caused by the different intake methods of the ICRP 66 model (inhalation) and in the animal study (instillation). The doses were on the same order while correcting for deposition fractions. The effective doses for hafnium, titanium, and zirconium tritides were 5.43 x 10(-10), 9.05 x 10(-11), and 6.5 x 10(-10) Sv Bq(-1), respectively, according to the animal studies.

Administration, Inhalation↗
PubMed2002

Remobilisation of 109Cd, 65Zn and 54Mn from freshwater-labelled river sediments when mixed with seawater.

A major fraction of trace metals transported by rivers is associated with sediments, especially during flooding, when erosion and resuspension increase sediment loads. Upon contact with seawater in estuaries, changes in ionic strength and pH may remobilise trace metals from sediment surfaces into more bioavailable forms. The objective of the present work was to investigate time-dependent interactions between trace metals and freshwater sediments and their potential remobilisation upon contact with seawater. Two river sediments (one organic and one inorganic) were labelled with 109Cd2+, 65Zn2+ and 54Mn2+ radioactive tracers for periods up to 6 months. Sorption of tracers occurred rapidly (> or = 80% sorption, < 1 h), followed by a slower approach to pseudoequilibrium. Kd(6 months) were estimated as 460, 480 and 2200 ml/g (inorganic sediment) compared to 5300, 4000 and 1200 ml/g (organic sediment) for 109Cd, 65Zn and 54Mn, respectively. Remobilisation of tracers from labelled sediments was studied using sequential extractions. Artificial seawater extracts simulated an estuarine environment. Subsequent extractions provided information about more strongly sorbed tracer fractions within sediments. Remobilisation of 109Cd by seawater was significant (> 65%) and least affected by sediment type or freshwater labelling time. Redistribution of Cd to strongly bound phases was minimal (4% and 1% of 109Cd in strongly oxidisable fractions). Seawater remobilisation of 65Zn was significantly greater from the organic sediment (54%) compared to the inorganic sediment (8%), where a large fraction of 65Zn (14%) became irreversibly bound. Similarly, more 54Mn was remobilised by seawater from the organic sediment than the inorganic sediment (66% and 3% remobilised, respectively), i.e., 54Mn became more strongly bound in the inorganic sediment. A simple three-box model, based on first-order differential equations, was used to describe the interaction between tracers in spiked freshwater and two operationally defined sediment fractions ("seawater exchangeable" and "seawater unexchangeable") up to 6 months of freshwater labelling. Model simulations were fitted to experiment data and apparent rate constants were calculated using numerical optimisation methods. Sorption ratios from modelling data (i.e., k1/k2) were greater for organic compared to inorganic sediments, while fixation ratios were higher in inorganic sediments. In conclusion, trace metals can be remobilised from sediments on contact with seawater in estuaries. High organic content in sediments increased initial sorption of tracers but inhibited redistribution to more strongly bound fractions over time, resulting in greater remobilisation of tracers when in contact with seawater.

Adsorption↗
PubMed1984

Non-choline-containing phospholipids solubilize divalent metal ions in organic solvents. The basis for a sensitive assay procedure.

Phospholipids which do not contain choline were found to solubilize Ni(II) in the chloroform phase resulting from the Folch extraction procedure. On the basis of this phenomenon a radioactive assay for such phospholipids was developed using 63Ni(II). This assay can be made rather sensitive by scaling down and can be performed relatively rapidly. The disadvantages are that it does not measure phosphatidyl chlorine or sphingomyelin and that different phospholipids bind different amounts of Ni(II). Alternatively, non-choline-containing phospholipids can be assayed colorimetrically on the basis of their ability to solubilize Cu(II) in the chloroform phase. The failure of phosphatidyl choline and sphingomyelin to bind divalent cations may be due to formation of an intramolecular salt between the negatively charged phosphate group and the positively charged nitrogen.

Animals↗
PubMed1991

The identification of a structurally important cysteine residue in the glycerol dehydrogenase from Bacillus stearothermophilus.

Evidence is presented to demonstrate that the Zn2+ metallo-enzyme glycerol dehydrogenase from the thermophile Bacillus stearothermophilus has one cysteine residue per subunit which is only available for reaction with thiol reagents in the metal-depleted form of the enzyme. Modification of the metal-depleted enzyme by methyl methanethiosulphonate prevents the reactivation of the enzyme by Zn2+ ions and induces dissociation of the oligomer into subunits. The rate of reaction of the cysteine residue with the thiol reagent DTNB is limited by a factor other than reagent concentration and it is proposed that the reagent only reacts with the cysteine residue in dissociated monomers. The enzyme has been labelled at the single cysteine residue by radioactive iodo[2-3H]acetic acid. Two radiolabelled peptides have been isolated and sequenced; one peptide is a component of the other. Spectroscopic evidence suggests that the cysteine residue is not involved in ligation of the essential metal ion. Chemical modification studies using the reagent diethylpyrocarbonate have suggested that two histidines are involved in the ligation of the metal.

Chemical Phenomena↗
PubMed2005

[Cadmium effects on lipid metabolism of rape (Brassica napus L.)].

Treatment of rape seedlings with increasing CdCl2 concentrations in the culture medium resulted in a cadmium accumulation within plant tissues, which increased with external metal dose; such accumulation was more important in roots than in leaves. Biomass production was severely inhibited, even at low cadmium concentration. In leaves, quantities of chloroplastic lipids, monogalactosyldiacylglycerol (MGDG), digalactosyldiacylglycerol (DGDG), sulfolipids (SL) and phosphatidylglycerol (PG) decreased sharply under metallic treatment. However, contents of extrachloroplastic lipids, mainly phosphatidylcholine (PC) and phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) increased significantly. In contrast to leaves, contents of root phospholipids decreased. Likewise, levels of tri-unsaturated fatty acids: linolenic (C18:3) and hexadecatrienoïc (C16:3) dropped in leaves of treated seedlings as compared to those of controls, suggesting that heavy metals induced an alteration in the fatty acid desaturation process or a stimulation of their peroxidation. Also, trans palmitoleic acid (C16:1-trans) level in PG decreased considerably. In roots, there was a slight decrease in C18:3 level, with a concomitant increase in the C18:2 percentage. Radioactive labelling of leaf lipids with (1-14C) acetate allowed to show that fatty acid biosynthesis was noticeably altered at the highest cadmium dose used (50 microM). Biosynthesis of tri-unsaturated fatty acids was also inhibited which may explain the decline in non-labelled lipid contents. Results showed that metallic ion seems to affect selectively chloroplastic membranes due to an inhibition of polyunsaturated fatty acid biosynthesis. Moreover, a lipid peroxidation occurred in our case because of the spectacular increase of malondialdehyde (MDA) content observed in cadmium treated leaves.

Brassica napus↗
PubMed1993

Absorption and accumulation of cadmium, lead and mercury from foods by rats.

The purpose of this study was to estimate the apparent absorbability of cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb) and mercury (Hg) from different foods by young rats when these elements occur intrinsically. The study consisted of three independent experiments. In the first experiment rats were fed a casein control diet, a corn-silage diet or an activated-sludge diet. Although the amount of Cd, Pb and Hg ingested from the sludge diet was orders of magnitude higher than that from the casein or corn-silage diet, the absorption of the metals was significantly less (P < 0.02) because these were present as poorly-soluble phosphates. In the second experiment, rats were fed either a commercial fish-meal control diet or an experimental fish-meal diet, with or without the addition of sodium phytate, based on catches from metal-polluted waters. No reduction in absorption resulted from the diet containing phytate as compared with the diet without phytate. The third experiment used the radioactive tracers Cd-115m, Pb-210 and Hg-203 intrinsically incorporated individually into maturing corn ears, on which the three experimental diets were based. The liver and kidney were the main target organs for all three elements (liver: Cd 0.6%, Pb 1.4% and Hg 0.6%; kidney: Cd 0.8%, Pb 0.9% and Hg 1.3%).

Administration, Oral↗
PubMed2003

Pore exclusion chromatography-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry for monitoring elements in bacteria: a study on microbial removal of uranium from aqueous solution.

The interstitial spaces between spherical particles in a packed column can act as a sieve that passes microorganisms below a certain size. If the bed is a perfusion-type material (containing a binary distribution of large and small pores), colloidal-size microorganisms are subject only to pore exclusion, while all molecules are subject to size exclusion among the various pores. Thus, microorganisms elute first, followed by macromolecules, and then small molecules. Coupling this separation method to an ICP magnetic sector mass spectrometer provides a sensitive, direct means to study the microbial uptake of heavy metals (i.e., uranium) from their surrounding environments. Multiple metal ions can be monitored in the microorganism and in the surrounding solution. In this way, definitive information can be provided for the remediation of radioactive waste sites. The effect of uranium on microbial growth is also discussed.

Bacillus subtilis↗
PubMed1987

Effects of the pyrones, maltol and ethyl maltol, on iron absorption from the rat small intestine.

The pyrones, 3-hydroxy-2-methyl-4-pyrone (maltol) and 3-hydroxy-2-ethyl-4-pyrone (ethyl maltol) chelate iron with a high affinity and selectivity. The resulting 1:3 (metal-ligand) complexes, being neutral, are able to partition readily across cell membranes and thus may facilitate iron transport across the intestinal wall. Absorption of radioactive iron (59Fe) in the presence of these pyrones was investigated in male rats 1, 2, 4 and 6 h after intraduodenal administration of a 7 micrograms dose and compared with that of 59Fe given as the sulphate, gluconate, fumarate or complexed to EDTA. Total body absorption and distribution were calculated from the 59Fe content of various tissue samples. With all the iron preparations used, blood levels of 59Fe were highest 1 h after injection whilst the 59Fe content at the major site of deposition, i.e. the bone marrow, increased up to 6 h. No 59Fe was found in the urine. Total body absorption of 59Fe was significantly higher from the pyrones than from the other four preparations. Over the dose range 0.7-700 micrograms, the proportion of 59Fe absorbed from both iron maltol and iron sulphate decreased with increasing dose. Enhanced 59Fe uptake from maltol was evident at 0.7-70 micrograms but not at 700 micrograms suggesting that use of these pyrones will not result in iron overload. Absorption of 59Fe given into the stomach was slower in onset but was sustained longer presumably via a steady delivery of iron to the duodenum from the gastric reservoir.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Animals↗
PubMed1994

Phosphorylation of lipopolysaccharides in the Antarctic psychrotroph Pseudomonas syringae: a possible role in temperature adaptation.

Phosphorylation of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) from a psychrotrophic bacterium, Pseudomonas syringae, from Antarctica was studied by using sucrose gradient-separated membrane fractions. The bacterium was found to possess an LPS kinase which could phosphorylate more LPS postsynthetically at higher temperatures. The phosphorylation was low at a lower temperature and was also found to occur in vivo. After phosphorylation of LPS in vitro, it was found that the major part of the radioactivity (> 85%) was associated with the core oligosaccharide region of the LPS. The phosphate groups of this region are probably involved in the binding of metal ions, which could be removed by EDTA. The cells grown at the lower temperature probably contained fewer divalent cations because of the smaller amount of phosphate and thereby were more sensitive to EDTA. The cells were also more sensitive to cationic antibiotics at the lower temperature. A possible role of this differential phosphorylation of LPS in modulating the function of the outer membrane as a permeability barrier in the psychrotroph is discussed.

Adaptation, Physiological↗
PubMed2003

A rapid decrease in the expression of DMT1 and Dcytb but not Ireg1 or hephaestin explains the mucosal block phenomenon of iron absorption.

BACKGROUND: A large oral dose of iron will reduce the absorption of a subsequent smaller dose of iron in a phenomenon known as mucosal block. Molecular analysis of this process may provide insights into the regulation of intestinal iron absorption. AIMS: To determine the effect of an oral bolus of iron on duodenal expression of molecules associated with intestinal iron transport in rats and to relate this to changes in iron absorption. METHODS: Rats were given an oral dose of iron and duodenal expression of divalent metal transporter 1 (DMT1), Dcytb, Ireg1, and hephaestin (Hp) was determined using the ribonuclease protection assay, western blotting, and immunofluorescence. Iron absorption was measured using radioactive (59)Fe. RESULTS: A decrease in intestinal iron absorption occurred following an oral dose of iron and this was associated with increased enterocyte iron levels, as assessed by iron regulatory protein activity and immunoblotting for ferritin. Reduced absorption was also accompanied by a rapid decrease in expression of the mRNAs encoding the brush border iron transport molecules Dcytb and the iron responsive element (IRE) containing the splice variant of DMT1. No such change was seen in expression of the non-IRE splice variant of DMT1 or the basolateral iron transport molecules Ireg1 and Hp. Similar changes were observed at the protein level. CONCLUSIONS: These data indicate that brush border, but not basolateral, iron transport components are regulated locally by enterocyte iron levels and support the hypothesis that systemic stimuli exert their primary effect on basolateral transport molecules.

Administration, Oral↗
PubMed2004

Depleted uranium dust from fired munitions: physical, chemical and biological properties.

This paper reports physical, chemical and biological analyses of samples of dust resulting from munitions containing depleted uranium (DU) that had been live-fired and had impacted an armored target. Mass spectroscopic analysis indicated that the average atom% of U was 0.198 +/- 0.10, consistent with depleted uranium. Other major elements present were iron, aluminum, and silicon. About 47% of the total mass was particles with diameters <300 microm, of which about 14% was <10 microm. X-ray diffraction analysis indicated that the uranium was present in the sample as uranium oxides-mainly U3O7 (47%), U3O8 (44%) and UO2 (9%). Depleted uranium dust, instilled into the lungs or implanted into the muscle of rats, contained a rapidly soluble uranium component and a more slowly soluble uranium component. The fraction that underwent dissolution in 7 d declined exponentially with increasing initial burden. At the lower lung burdens tested (<15 microg DU dust/lung) about 14% of the uranium appeared in urine within 7 d. At the higher lung burdens tested (~80-200 microg DU dust/lung) about 5% of the DU appeared in urine within 7 d. In both cases about 50% of that total appeared in urine within the first day. DU implanted in muscle similarly showed that about half of the total excreted within 7 d appeared in the first day. At the lower muscle burdens tested (<15 microg DU dust/injection site) about 9% was solubilized within 7 d. At muscle burdens >35 microg DU dust/injection site about 2% appeared in urine within 7 d. Natural uranium (NU) ore dust was instilled into rat lungs for comparison. The fraction dissolving in lung showed a pattern of exponential decline with increasing initial burden similar to DU. However, the decline was less steep, with about 14% appearing in urine for lung burdens up to about 200 microg NU dust/lung and 5% at lung burdens >1,100 microg NU dust/lung. NU also showed both a fast and a more slowly dissolving component. At the higher lung burdens of both DU and NU that showed lowered urine excretion rates, histological evidence of kidney damage was seen. Kidney damage was not seen with the muscle burdens tested. DU dust produced kidney damage at lower lung burdens and lower urine uranium levels than NU dust, suggesting that other toxic metals in DU dust may contribute to the damage.

Air Pollutants, Radioactive↗