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PubMed1992

Metabolic and performance responses to uphill and downhill running in distance runners.

Distance running performance is slower on hilly race courses than flat courses even when the start and finish are at the same elevation, resulting in equal amounts of uphill and downhill running. The physiological mechanism limiting performance on these courses is not known. We examined the effects of uphills and downhills with 11 trained male distance runners running three 30 min self-paced competitive races on a treadmill. Race courses consisted of five, 6 min stages. Percent grades were: course A (0, 0, 0, 0, 0), course B (0, +5, 0, -5, 0) and course C (0, -5, 0, +5, 0). Pace, oxygen consumption (VO2), heart rate (HR), blood lactate (LA), and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) did not change significantly (P greater than 0.05) over stages on the control course A. Pace changed inversely with percent grade on courses B and C. The increase in downhill running pace was inadequate to maintain a level VO2 during the race. LA increased on the uphill stages even though running pace decreased. The running paces for courses B and C were slower (P less than 0.05) than course A by 2.8% and 2.4%, respectively. Runners do not maintain constant energy expenditure when racing on hilly courses. Lactate accumulated on uphill stages even though pace decreased. Running pace increased on downhills but not enough to maintain a constant VO2.

Adult↗

PubMed1992

Introduction: economy of running: a multidisciplinary perspective.

This symposium endeavors to address the issue of running economy from a multidisciplinary perspective. Topics addressed in this symposium include physiological aspects of running economy, changes in running economy with age during childhood and adolescence, biomechanical considerations for economical walking and running, psychological state and running economy, and running economy of elite performers. While the knowledge base in this area is expanding, future research should emphasize the formulation of testable hypotheses and the fostering of collaborative efforts aimed at identifying and manipulating variables associated with improved economy and discovering mechanisms underlying economical running styles.

Humans↗

PubMedDate not supplied

[Bronchial provocation tests using methacholine, cycle ergometer exercise and free running in children with intermittent asthma].

OBJECTIVE: To compare airway responsiveness to methacholine, cycle ergometer exercise and free running in children with intermittent asthma. METHODS: A randomized study was conducted with 30 children of both genders with intermittent asthma. Each child was submitted to challenge testing on three separate days, in random order: a) Methacholine challenge using a dosimeter; b) Exercise challenge testing -- free running along a 50-meter-long corridor; c) Dry-air exercise challenge on a cycle ergometer. Target heart rate during exercise was 80 to 90% of the maximum predicted value. Spirometry was performed 3, 6,10,15,20 and 30 minutes after exercise. Exercise-induced bronchospasm was defined as a decrease in FEV1 of > or = 10% in comparison to pretest values. RESULTS: Mean age was 11+/-3 years. FEV1 and FEV1/FVC ratios were normal and similar before all provocation tests. The maximum heart rate was 178+/-7 bpm during cycling and 181+/-6 bpm during the free running test (p > 0.05). Significant bronchospasm was observed with methacholine in 23 cases, after free running in 19 and after cycling in 14 children (p < 0.05, methacholine vs exercise tests). Taking all FEV1 measurements after exercise into account, the free running test resulted in greater exercise-induced bronchospasm in comparison with exercise made on a cycle ergometer (p = 0.003, chi2 = 8.948). There was a significant, but poor, correlation between the maximum percentage decrease in FEV1 after free running and cycling (r = 0.46, p < 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: Methacholine challenge identifies a greater number of asthmatics in comparison to exercise tests. When bronchial provocation test with methacholine is not available, free running should be the test of choice due to its simplicity and greater ability to induce bronchospasm.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2005

Caffeine maintains vigilance and improves run times during night operations for Special Forces.

PURPOSE: This study examined the effects of caffeine (CAF) on vigilance, marksmanship, and run performance during 27 h of sustained wakefulness in Special Forces personnel. METHODS: There were 31 soldiers (29.8 +/- 5.4 yr, 86.4 +/- 8.6 kg) who were divided into placebo (PLAC, n = 15) and CAF (n = 16) groups. A 6.3-km control run was completed on the morning of Day 1. In the evening of Day 2, soldiers performed a control observation and reconnaissance vigilance task (ORVT) in the field. This 90-min task was repeated twice more between 02:00 and 06:00 on Day 3 during an overnight period of sleep deprivation. Marksmanship was assessed before and after the ORVT. PLAC or 200 mg of CAF gum was administered at 01:45, 03:45, and approximately 06:30 on Day 3. A final 6.3-km run commenced within 30 min of receiving the final dose. RESULTS: ORVT was maintained in CAF at control levels of 77 +/- 13% during the overnight testing. However, values decreased significantly for PLAC from 77 +/- 15% to 54 +/- 29% and 51 +/- 31% during the first and second overnight testing periods, respectively. CAF had no effect on marksmanship but improved 6.3-km run times by 1.2 +/- 1.8 min. Run times slowed for PLAC by 0.9 +/- 0.8 min from approximately 35 min during the control run; the changes in performance were significant between groups. CONCLUSIONS: It was concluded that CAF maintained vigilance and improved running performance during an overnight field operation for Special Forces personnel.

Adult↗

PubMed2005

The assessment of an intermittent high intensity running test.

AIM: In multiple sprint sports the ability to perform repeated short duration bouts of maximal intensity exercise appears to be sport specific than the ability to perform prolonged continuous exercise or produce a single bout of exercise. However, previous studies have not verified a field test method with an appropriate intermittent anaerobic exercise pattern. The purpose of this study was to establish the reliability and validity of the Intermittent Anaerobic Running Test (IAnRT) primarily developed for soccer players. METHODS: Twenty-nine trained male adolescent soccer players performed two separate 20 m sprints and the IAnRT on an indoor running track in each of two testing sessions separated by one recovery day. The IAnRT consisted of 10 20-m sprints with 20-s recovery periods between the sprints. RESULTS: The mean running speed (Vm) and the speed at the beginning and the end of the IAnRT (V1+2, V9+10) confirmed good reliability. The relative mean speed index was the preferred indicator for assessing the ability to maintain short duration running performance during the intermittent exercise mode. Using confirmatory factor analysis the running performance of IAnRT was best explained by one general factor and one subfactor which consequently joined the general one from the 6th sprint (P=0.03, Bentler's d=0.99, RMSR=0.03). CONCLUSION: The IAnRT provided reliable and valid performance indices, which reflect the maximal anaerobic running power and capacity for repeated running sprints.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2006

Reliability and validity of data for 2 newly developed shuttle run tests in children with cerebral palsy.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to examine the reliability and validity of data obtained with 2 newly developed shuttle run tests (SRT-I and SRT-II) to measure aerobic power in children with cerebral palsy (CP) who were classified at level I or II on the Gross Motor Function Classification System (GMFCS). The SRT-I was developed for children at GMFCS level I, and the SRT-II was developed for children at GMFCS level II. SUBJECTS: Twenty-five children and adolescents with CP (10 female, 15 male; mean age = 11.9 years, SD = 2.9), classified at GMFCS level I (n = 14) or level II (n = 11), participated in the study. METHODS: To assess test-retest reliability of data for the 10-m shuttle run tests, the subjects performed the same test within 2 weeks. To examine validity, the shuttle run tests were compared with a GMFCS level-based treadmill test designed to measure peak oxygen uptake. RESULTS: Statistical analyses revealed test-retest reliability for exercise time (number of levels completed) (intraclass correlation coefficients of .97 for the SRT-I and .99 for the SRT-II) and reliability for peak heart rate attained during the final level (intraclass correlation coefficients of .87 for the SRT-I and .94 for the SRT-II). High correlations were found for the relationship between data for both shuttle run tests and data for the treadmill test (r = .96 for both). DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: The results suggest that both 10-m shuttle run tests yield reliable and valid data. Moreover, the shuttle run tests have advantages over a treadmill test for children with CP who are able to walk and run (GMFCS level I or II).

Adolescent↗

PubMed1991

Acute recovery profile of lung volumes and function after running 5 miles.

The purpose of this study was to characterize the acute changes and recovery profile of lung volumes and function subsequent to strenuous aerobic exercise. Eight experienced runners (X age = 25 yrs; wt = 73 kg; ht = 181 cm) completed three identical 5 mile runs. Determinations were made of forced vital capacity (FVC), residual volume (RV), closing capacity (CC), and pulmonary diffusion capacity (DLCO). Measurement of cardiac output (Q) and stroke volume (SV) occurred simultaneously with the 10 second DLCO breathhold maneuver. Measurements were obtained before and 5, 15 and 25 minutes after each run. FVC was reduced (-4.5%) 5 min post-run with a return to pre-run values by 15 min. CC (+16%) and RV (+18%) remained elevated for at least 30 min post-run. DLCO did not appear to be effected by the run. However, the single-breath DLCO breathhold maneuver consistently caused a fall in SV at rest and during recovery. The hypothesis has been forwarded that an increase in central blood volume post-run accounted for the acute reduction in FVC. The sustained elevation in RV resulted from early closure of the small airways possibly due to an increase in extra-vascular lung water.

Adult↗

PubMed1987

[Behavior of arterial pressure during sports activity: track running].

In 6 normotensive and 14 borderline or mild hypertensive runners the intraarterial blood pressure (BP) changes determined by a maximal bicycle ergometric test and by an exhaustive run performed in outdoor conditions were recorded by means of the portable Oxford system. During running systolic BP attained higher values than during bicycle ergometry, while diastolic BP decreased during running and remained unchanged during ergometry. The highest BP values were recorded soon after starting running, then they progressively declined to increase once again during the final sprinting. Beat to beat analysis of the pressure tracings showed a peculiar pattern of the phasic waves throughout the run: continuous cyclic oscillations of pulse pressure were detected, as the variations of systolic blood pressure were not paralleled by those of the diastolic. The frequency of these rhythmic oscillations varied from 6-7 to 24-27/minute and was not related to respiration rate. The shape of these oscillations prompted us to investigate whether they were due to the "beat" phenomenon, that is to the combined effect of two waves with a nearly equal frequency. To verify this hypothesis 10 athletes during the run carried around the chest a Teruflex container filled with saline. The amplitude of the BP changes recorded in the container ranged from +/- 10 to +/- 50 mmHg. They were added by means of a computer to the BP tracing recorded during bicycle ergometry. The resultant wave was similar to that recorded in the radial artery during running.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Adolescent↗

PubMed1979

Cardiovascular deaths while running.

When a person dies of cardiovascular causes during recreational running, the public frequently assumes the exercise caused the death. For a statistical perspective, the number of cardiovascular deaths while running that occurs by chance alone is estimated. If white male runners resemble marathoners, being nonsmokers and at lowest lean weight, four deaths from cardiovascular disease would occur per year while running 20 minutes, three times per week and 30 deaths per year if the two hours after running are considered as a running-associated period. However, if runners resemble the white male population, then 15 deaths would occur from cardiovascular disease per year while running and 104 during the associated period. Thus, four to 104 cardiovascular deaths per year are predicted on a purely temporal basis in white men while running.

Adult↗

PubMed1982

[Biomechanical characteristics of endurance running].

Over the years, running as a means of locomotion has raised the scientific curiosity of man (Amar, 1920). The advent of modern techniques of investigation such as high speed cinematography and force plates makes the analysis of the data more efficient. The last decade has been particularly fruitful in that respect. The purpose of this study was to measure the biomechanical variations associated with an increase in running speed. The most significant factors related to the increase of running speed were also studied. Twenty subjects of both sexes were selected for the study. They were required to run at seven different velocities, ranging between 12.1 and 19.3 km/h. Cinematographic and force platform data were collected as the subjects were running at prescribed speed, around a 200 m track. This study has shown that three variables related to the running cycle accounted for 90% of the variance in running velocity. A factorial analysis revealed also that two factors made up exclusively of temporal variables accounted for more than 60% of the variance; a third factor, saturated with the dynamic variables accounted for over 25% of the variance.

Biomechanical Phenomena↗

PubMed1982

A comparison of combined running and weight training with circuit weight training.

The purpose of this study was to compare the physiologic effects of a program of combined running and weight training (RUN-CWT) with a program of circuit weight training (CWT). Thirty-six females (X age = 35.7 yr) and 41 males (X age = 36.1 yr) were randomly assigned to RUN-CWT, CWT, and control groups. The training groups participated in 12-wk programs, 3 d . wk-1. Three circuits of 10 weight-training exercises were completed with 12-15 repetitions performed in 30 s at 40% of one-repetition maximum at each station. The 30-min RUN-CWT program included 30 s of running on an indoor track following each CWT station, whereas the 22.5 min CWT program included a 15-s rest period between stations. The RUN-CWT groups had a significant (+ 17%) increase in VO2max (females 30.5-35.7 ml . kg-1 . min-1 and males 39.7-46.3 ml . kg-1 . min-1) and strength (females + 24% and males +21%), and a significant decrease in body fat percentage (females -3.2% and males -4.1%). The CWT groups also increased significantly in VO2max (+12%) and strength (+17%) and decreased in body fat (-3.0%). The controls did not change significantly in any variable. Statistically, one training program was not shown to be superior to the other; thus, both programs of RUN-CWT and CWT were effective in improving measures of physical fitness.

Body Composition↗

PubMed1980

Body temperature, respiration, and acid-base equilibrium during prolonged running.

The purpose of this investigation was to study respiratory responses related to acid-base equilibrium during two bouts of prolonged high intensity treadmill running, each at different body temperature levels. In an attempt to augment elevation in body temperature during prolonged running, incomplete rehydration procedures were employed. Rectal temperature was found to increase significantly during the course of each run. In addition, rectal temperature was found to be significantly higher during the second run at each respective time period. After the transition to exercise, plasma volume, arterial lactate concentration, arterial hydrogen ion concentration, arterial carbon dioxide partial pressure, arterial bicarbonate concentration, pulmonary ventilation, and ventilatory equivalent of carbon dioxide remained constant throughout each run. It was also found that arterial carbon dioxide partial pressure was lower and ventilatory equivalent of carbon dioxide was higher during the second run at each respective time period. For the studied population, these results indicate that after initial adjustments most of the examined variables remain fairly constant despite increasing rectal temperature during prolonged running.

Acid-Base Equilibrium↗

PubMed1994

Interrelation of one mile running time and HST score among rural school boys.

Peak physiological capabilities are necessary for top level performance in sports, although skills and motivation play an important role. Laboratory assessments often give us valuable insights concerning the physiological factors underlying athletic performance. The Physical Fitness Index (PFI) determined by the Harvard Step Test (HST) is one of the most important indexes which predicts the physical abilities of athletes. HST, Cooper's 12-min run-walk test and one-mile run are good measures of cardiorespiratory fitness. In the present study, we have attempted to determine the relationship between HST and the one-mile run in an open field on 31 school boys of a rural village, 14-15 years of age, who were in early puberty. The mean HST score was 90 +/- 7.07, and one-mile running time was 443.45 +/- 29.82 s. There is a good correlation between HST and running time (r = 0.94). Probable running time for one-mile may be determined from the HST score by using the regression equation: Running time in s = 783 - 4* HST +/- 0.13 (SE of estimate).

Adolescent↗

PubMed1994

Comparison of cardiopulmonary responses to forward and backward walking and running.

Backward running has long been used in sports conditioning programs and has recently been incorporated into rehabilitative settings as a method of increasing quadriceps strength while decreasing the joint compressive forces about the knee. Although backward locomotion has been studied kinetically, the metabolic cost of backward walking and/or running has not to our knowledge been previously characterized. Oxygen consumption and other cardiopulmonary variables were measured under constant speed exercise during backward and forward walking at 107.2 m.min-1 and during backward and forward running at 160.8 m.min-1. Peak oxygen consumption (VO2peak) was also measured during maximal incremental backward and forward running. VO2, HR, and blood lactate were significantly higher (P < 0.001) during backward walking and running than during forward walking and running. During backward walking and backward running, subjects exercised at 60% and 84% of their forward VO2peak, respectively. In conclusion, for a given speed, backward locomotion elicits a greater metabolic demand and cardiopulmonary response than forward locomotion. In general, these data suggest that while undergoing rehabilitation, an injured athlete may continue to exercise using backward walking/running at an intensity sufficient enough to maintain cardiovascular fitness levels.

Athletic Injuries↗

PubMed1996

Nutritional, immunologic and psychological responses to a 7250 km run.

OBJECTIVE: Health, nutritional status, aerobic power, mood state and immune function were studied over 112 days of aerobic activity (a 7250 km cross-Canada run). TYPE OF STUDY CASE REPORT: a healthy nulliparous 43 yr old woman ran 65 km/day for 112 days at a 7.9 km/h pace. MEASURES: Food intake, Profile of Mood State and Beck Depression Inventory were monitored weekly. Resting lymphocyte subsets and cytokines were determined before the run, at 3324, 5700 and 7250 km, and after recovery. Clinical data, ventilatory threshold, maximal oxygen intake and immune responses to maximal exercise were obtained before and after the run. OBJECTIVE: Health, nutritional status, aerobic power, mood state and immune function were studied over 112 days of aerobic activity (a 7250 km cross-Canada run). TYPE OF STUDY CASE REPORT: a healthy nulliparous 43 yr old woman ran 65 km/day for 112 days at a 7.9 km/h pace. MEASURES: Food intake, Profile of Mood State and Beck Depression Inventory were monitored weekly. Resting lymphocyte subsets and cytokines were determined before the run, at 3324, 5700 and 7250 km, and after recovery. Clinical data, ventilatory threshold, maximal oxygen intake and immune responses to maximal exercise were obtained before and after the run. RESULTS: Early muscle pain was treated with Ibuprofen. A mild paronychia responded to saline soaks, and exercise-induced asthma necessitated inhalation of fenoterol hydrobromide, beclomethasone diproprionate and ipatropium bromide. Food intake, (16.7 MJ/day), was 4.3 MJ/day less than expenditure, covered by metabolizing 16.7 kg of tissue (81.4% fat, 18.6% lean tissue). Ventilatory threshold and aerobic power showed little change. Initial psychological data showed tension and lack of confidence. Depression increased when crossing the Rockies, and there was anger and lack of vigor after the event. The CD8 count was low throughout; the CD25 count increased, but the CD16/56 count, IL-6 and TNF-alpha decreased over the run. Three weeks later, IL-6 had increased, but TNF-alpha remained low. CONCLUSIONS: Given substantial fat reserves, an exercise-induced energy deficit of 4.3 MJ/day can be sustained for 112 days without significant adverse consequences for immune function.

Adult↗

PubMed1998

Effects of prolonged strenuous endurance exercise on plasma myosin heavy chain fragments and other muscular proteins. Cycling vs running.

BACKGROUND: This study evaluates creatine kinase, myosin heavy chain, and cardiac troponin blood levels following three types of exercise: 1) short-distance uphill or downhill running; 2) alpine ultramarathon; and 3) alpine long-distance cycling. METHODS EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: Comparative field study; follow-up up to 10 days. SETTING: Department of Sports Medicine. All biochemical markers were analysed at the Department of Medical Chemistry and Biochemistry. PATIENTS OR PARTICIPANTS: Subjects included healthy, trained males (N = 53). All subjects were nonsmokers and free from medication prior to and during the study. Each volunteer was an experienced runner or cyclist, who had at least once successfully finished the Swiss Alpine Marathon of Davos or the Otztal-Radmarathon before. INTERVENTIONS: Running or cycling. MEASURES: Plasma concentrations of creatine kinase, myosin heavy chain fragments and cardiac troponins were measured to diagnose skeletal and cardiac muscle damage, respectively. RESULTS: Skeletal muscle protein release is markedly different between uphill and downhill running, with very little evidence for muscle damage in the uphill runners. There is considerable muscle protein leakage in the ultramarathoners (67 km distance; 30 km downhill running). In contrast, only modest amounts of skeletal muscle damage are found after alpine long-distance cycling (230 km distance). CONCLUSIONS: This study proves that there is slow-twitch skeletal muscle fiber damage after prolonged strenuous endurance exercise and short-distance downhill running. Exhaustive endurance exercise involving downhill running and short-distance downhill running lead to more pronounced injury than strenuous endurance exercise involving concentric actions. From our results there is no reason for suggesting that prolonged intense exercise may induce myocardial injury in symptom-less athletes without cardiac deseases.

Adult↗

PubMed1998

Bench stepping and running in women. Changes in fitness and injury status.

BACKGROUND: The purpose of this investigation was to evaluate injury rates and changes in VO2peak in women associated with aerobic exercise (bench stepping and running). METHODS: A pretest post-test repeated measures design was used to evaluate changes in VO2peak after training for 10 weeks, 3 days per week, for 1 hour per session. Injury incidence was monitored by questionnaires throughout the training program. SETTING: All testing and training took place at Auburn University Montgomery, Montgomery, AL, USA. PARTICIPANTS: The subjects were women enrolled in university physical activity courses. The exercise groups consisted of 23 women who performed bench exercise and 15 who performed running-jogging. Eleven subjects served as non-exercising controls. INTERVENTION: The 10-week exercise training program served as the intervention. MEASURES: Subjects were both pre- and post-tested for VO2peak by open circuit calorimetry. Body composition was estimated from a 7-site skinfold equation. A daily injury log was maintained to evaluate injury status. RESULTS: A repeated measures ANOVA found similar significant improvements in VO2peak for both the bench and running groups with no change for the control group. An evaluation of the injuries graded II or higher found 0.29 injuries per 100 hrs for the bench group and 0.66 injuries per 100 hrs for the running group. When all complaints were considered (grade I to grade IV) the rates increased to 2.44 per 100 hrs for the running group and 6.09 per 100 hrs for the bench group. CONCLUSIONS: Aerobic bench exercise produced similar changes in VO2peak compared to running. The results indicated that the primary injury complaints were grade I and related to delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS). The bench group experienced an greater incidence of grade I complaints while the running group experienced a slightly greater incidence of more serious grade II or higher injuries.

Adult↗

PubMed1991

Estimating the effect of the run-in on the power of the Physicians' Health Study.

In the Physicians' Health Study, a randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind trial of aspirin in the reduction of cardiovascular mortality and beta-carotene in decreasing cancer incidence, 33,223 subjects were eligible and willing to enter the trial. Instead of randomizing this group immediately, all participants received identical calendar packs that contained active aspirin and beta-carotene placebo. Following an 18-week run-in, only 22,071 subjects who remained eligible and willing and had taken at least 2/3 of their pills were randomized. We estimated the effect of the run-in as follows: pill taking compliance increased 20-41 per cent; sample size decreased 34 per cent; duration of follow-up decreased 7 per cent which resulted in a 7 per cent decrease in the expected event rate for the placebo group. To estimate these changes, we made assumptions about compliance and outcome risk for those excluded by the run-in. Our conclusion, however, about the net effect of the run-in on the power of the study remains constant across variations in a number of those assumptions. The power with the run-in, with 22,071 good compliers was typically higher, and never more than negligibly lower, than the power without the run-in, with 33,223 good and poor compliers. In addition, savings from enrolling 11,152 fewer subjects in the trial resulted from the use of the run-in.

Aspirin↗