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Results for “Ribosome Profiling”

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PubMed2002

A ribosome-free extract from cultured cells improves recovery of polysomes from the mosquito fat body: analysis of vitellogenin and ribosomal protein rpL34 gene expression.

We have examined the association of ribosomal protein rpL34 mRNA with polysomes in Aedes albopictus C7-10 cells in culture using a simple, two-step sucrose gradient. In growing cells, 40-50% of the ribosomes were engaged on polysomes. This proportion could be increased to 80% when metabolism was stimulated by refeeding the cells with fresh medium. Conversely, ribosomes shifted off polysomes when cells were starved with phosphate-buffered saline or cell lysates were treated with puromycin. When similar approaches were used with fat body from blood-fed female Aedes aegypti mosquitoes, we were unable to obtain the polysome fraction that contained vitellogenin mRNA, which is abundantly translated after a blood meal. Addition of post-mitochondrial supernatant from fat body to polysomes from cultured cells shifted the polysome profile towards smaller polysomes and monosomes, in a dose-dependent fashion. Disruption of fat body tissue in a post-ribosomal supernatant from refed cells improved the recovery of polysomes, demonstrating both the engagement of vitellogenin mRNA on polysomes and the mobilization of rpL34 from messenger-ribonuceloprotein particles onto polysomes in blood-fed mosquitoes. These observations suggested that ribonucleases remain active when polysomes are prepared from mosquito fat body, and that cell culture supernatant contains a ribonuclease inhibitor.

Journal Article↗

PubMed2003

Structural basis for contrasting activities of ribosome binding thiazole antibiotics.

Thiostrepton and micrococcin inhibit protein synthesis by binding to the L11 binding domain (L11BD) of 23S ribosomal RNA. The two compounds are structurally related, yet they produce different effects on ribosomal RNA in footprinting experiments and on elongation factor-G (EF-G)-dependent GTP hydrolysis. Using NMR and an assay based on A1067 methylation by thiostrepton-resistance methyltransferase, we show that the related thiazoles, nosiheptide and siomycin, also bind to this region. The effect of all four antibiotics on EF-G-dependent GTP hydrolysis and EF-G-GDP-ribosome complex formation was studied. Our NMR and biochemical data demonstrate that thiostrepton, nosiheptide, and siomycin share a common profile, which differs from that of micrococcin. We have generated a three-dimensional (3D) model for the interaction of thiostrepton with L11BD RNA. The model rationalizes the differences between micrococcin and the thiostrepton-like antibiotics interacting with L11BD.

Anti-Bacterial Agents↗

PubMed2005

Ancestral antibiotic resistance in Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

Chemotherapeutic options to treat tuberculosis are severely restricted by the intrinsic resistance of Mycobacterium tuberculosis to the majority of clinically applied antibiotics. Such resistance is partially provided by the low permeability of their unique cell envelope. Here we describe a complementary system that coordinates resistance to drugs that have penetrated the envelope, allowing mycobacteria to tolerate diverse classes of antibiotics that inhibit cytoplasmic targets. This system depends on whiB7, a gene that pathogenic Mycobacterium shares with Streptomyces, a phylogenetically related genus known as the source of diverse antibiotics. In M. tuberculosis, whiB7 is induced by subinhibitory concentrations of antibiotics (erythromycin, tetracycline, and streptomycin) and whiB7 null mutants (Streptomyces and Mycobacterium) are hypersusceptible to antibiotics in vitro. M. tuberculosis is also antibiotic sensitive within a monocyte model system. In addition to antibiotics, whiB7 is induced by exposure to fatty acids that pathogenic Mycobacterium species may accumulate internally or encounter within eukaryotic hosts during infection. Gene expression profiling analyses demonstrate that whiB7 transcription determines drug resistance by activating expression of a regulon including genes involved in ribosomal protection and antibiotic efflux. Components of the whiB7 system may serve as attractive targets for the identification of inhibitors that render M. tuberculosis or multidrug-resistant derivatives more antibiotic-sensitive.

Anti-Bacterial Agents↗

PubMed2006

Limited genetic variability in Megasphaera elsdenii strains.

Levels of phenotypic and genotypic diversity among seven Megasphaera elsdenii strains recovered from rumen contents of cattle, sheep and lambs were determined by a combination of antibiotic-resistance analysis and PCR fingerprint techniques targeted both to the ribosomal RNA operon (ARDRA, RISA) and the whole genome (ERIC-PCR, RAPD-PCR). Despite exhibiting different antibiotic resistance profiles, the tested strains represent genetically nearly identical isolates. Close genetic relatedness was found among M. elsdenii isolates that originated from vastly different habitats worldwide, as revealed by the comparison of 16S rDNA sequences.

Animals↗

PubMed1985

Ribonuclease activity associated with the 60S ribosome-inactivating proteins ricin A, phytolaccin and Shiga toxin.

All purified preparations of the ribosome-inactivating proteins ricin A, phytolaccin and Shiga toxin were shown to exhibit ribonuclease activity with 5S or 5.8S rRNA substrates. These toxin species generated reproducible patterns of RNA fragments distinct for each toxin species while multiple preparations of a single toxin species yielded similar RNA fragment patterns. The heat inactivation profile of Shiga toxin was identical for its RNase and protein synthesis inhibitory activities. These data are the first to indicate that the ribosome-inactivating catalytic toxins, in addition to alpha-sarcin, exhibit RNase activity. These results suggest RNase activity may be responsible for ribosome-inactivation catalyzed by ricin, phytolaccin and Shiga toxin proteins.

Animals↗

PubMed2004

Predominance of lineage I among Trypanosoma cruzi isolates from Venezuelan patients with different clinical profiles of acute Chagas' disease.

Trypanosoma cruzi isolates from 23 acute chagasic patients from localities of Western Venezuela (state of Barinas) where Chagas' disease is endemic were typed using ribosomal and mini-exon gene markers. Results showed that isolates of the two major phylogenetic lineages, T. cruzi I and T. cruzi II, were isolated from these patients. Six isolates (26%) were typed as T. cruzi II and 17 (74%) as belonging to T. cruzi lineage I. Analysis of random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) patterns confirmed these two groups of isolates, but did not disclose significant genetic intra-lineage polymorphism. Patients infected by both T. cruzi I or T. cruzi II showed different clinical profiles presenting highly variable signs and symptoms of acute phase of Chagas' disease ranging from totally asymptomatic to severe heart failure. The predominance of T. cruzi I human isolates in Venezuela allied to the higher prevalence of severe symptoms of Chagas' disease (heart failure) in patients infected by this lineage do not corroborate an innocuousness of T. cruzi I infection to humans. To our knowledge, this is the first study describing predominance of T. cruzi lineage I in a large number of acute chagasic patients with distinct and well-characterized clinical profiles.

Acute Disease↗

PubMed2003

Dietary zinc modulates gene expression in murine thymus: results from a comprehensive differential display screening.

Differential mRNA display was used to comprehensively screen the murine thymic transcriptome for genes modulated in vivo by dietary zinc. A moderate feeding protocol rendered young adult, outbred mice zinc-deficient and zinc-supplemented without alterations in feeding behavior or growth. However, these levels of deficiency and supplementation altered specific mRNA abundances in a manner detectable by differential display. In total, 240 primer-pair combinations were used to generate >48,000 interpretable cDNA bands derived from thymic total RNA, of which only 265 or 0.55% were identified as zinc-modulated under these moderate dietary conditions. The most strongly zinc-modulated cDNAs identified by display were reamplified and sequenced. No cDNAs encoding zinc-metalloenzymes or zinc-finger transcription factors were identified as zinc-modulated in this global screening. Those zinc-regulated genes independently confirmed by quantitative PCR included: heat shock proteins 40 and 60; heat shock cognate 70; histocompatibility 2, class II antigen A, alpha; and the T cell cytokine receptor. In addition, a variety of transcription- and translation-related factors (such as ribosomal proteins L3, L5, and L28; nuclear matrix protein 84; matrin cyclophilin; the H3 histone family 3A protein; beta(2) microglobulin; and a cleavage and polyadenylation factor) were identified as zinc-modulated. These profiling data show that differential expression of genes in the thymus in response to the dietary zinc supply precedes many of the phenotypic effects on thymic function associated with severe zinc restriction or supplementation. Several genes involved in T cell development were identified as regulated by zinc and will be targets to evaluate the effects of zinc on immune function.

Animals↗

PubMed2001

Age and disease related changes in intestinal bacterial populations assessed by cell culture, 16S rRNA abundance, and community cellular fatty acid profiles.

BACKGROUND: The normal intestinal microflora plays an important role in host metabolism and provides a natural defence mechanism against invading pathogens. Although the microbiota in adults has been extensively studied, little is known of the changes that occur in the microflora with aging. These may have important consequences in elderly people, many of whom are receiving antibiotic therapy and who are most susceptible to intestinal dysbiosis. AIMS: To characterise the major groups of faecal bacteria in subjects of different ages using a combination of cultural, molecular, and chemotaxonomic approaches. METHODS: Comparative microbiological studies were made on four different subject groups: children (16 months to seven years, n=10), adults (21-34 years, n=7), healthy elderly subjects (67-88 years, n=5), and geriatric patients (68-73 years, n=4) diagnosed with Clostridium difficile diarrhoea. Selected faecal bacteria were investigated using viable counting procedures, 16S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) abundance measurements, and the occurrence of specific signature fatty acids in whole community fatty acid methyl ester profiles. RESULTS: The principal microbiological difference between adults and children was the occurrence of higher numbers of enterobacteria in the latter group, as determined by viable counts (p<0.05) and 16S rRNA (p<0.01) measurements. Moreover, a greater proportion of children's faecal rRNA was hybridised by the three probes (bifidobacteria, enterobacteria, bacteroides-porphyromonas-prevotella) used in the study, indicating a less developed gut microbiota. Species diversity was also markedly lower in the Clostridium difficile associated diarrhoea group, which was characterised by high numbers of facultative anaerobes and low levels of bifidobacteria and bacteroides. Although it was a considerably less sensitive diagnostic tool, cellular fatty acid analysis correlated with viable bacterial counts and 16S rRNA measurements in a number of bacteria, including bacteroides. CONCLUSIONS: Polyphasic analysis of faecal bacteria showed that significant structural changes occur in the microbiota with aging, and this was especially evident with respect to putatively protective bifidobacteria. Reductions in these organisms in the large bowel may be related to increased disease risk in elderly people.

Adult↗

PubMed2001

Ribosomal 18S RNA prevails over glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase and beta-actin genes as internal standard for quantitative comparison of mRNA levels in invasive and noninvasive human melanoma cell subpopulations.

The comparison of the gene expression profiles between two subpopulations of melanoma cells (1C8 and T1C3) derived from the tumor of one patient by cDNA array revealed differences in GAPDH and beta-actin gene levels. These two housekeeping genes were up-regulated in invasive T1C3 melanoma cells compared to noninvasive 1C8 cells. Since cDNA array results were not confirmed by conventional RT-PCR throughout the exponential phase of amplification, we performed duplex relative RT-PCR using ribosomal 18S RNA as internal standard including competimer technology. Statistical analyses provided significant evidence that invasive T1C3 melanoma cells exhibited a twofold higher mRNA level of both GAPDH and beta-actin than noninvasive 1C8 cells. This study demonstrates that the duplex relative RT-PCR procedure including ribosomal 18S RNA as internal standard and competimer technology is precise for RNA quantification and is tailored for cDNA array validation. Our data provide molecular evidence that cellular subpopulations of the same pathological origin are highly heterogeneous and extend the concept that the selection of an appropriate internal control for comparative mRNA analysis should be adapted to each model of human cancers.

Actins↗

PubMed2002

Mucosa-associated bacteria in the human gastrointestinal tract are uniformly distributed along the colon and differ from the community recovered from feces.

The human gastrointestinal (GI) tract harbors a complex community of bacterial cells in the mucosa, lumen, and feces. Since most attention has been focused on bacteria present in feces, knowledge about the mucosa-associated bacterial communities in different parts of the colon is limited. In this study, the bacterial communities in feces and biopsy samples from the ascending, transverse, and descending colons of 10 individuals were analyzed by using a 16S rRNA approach. Flow cytometric analysis indicated that 10(5) to 10(6) bacteria were present in the biopsy samples. To visualize the diversity of the predominant and the Lactobacillus group community, denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) analysis of 16S rRNA gene amplicons was performed. DGGE analysis and similarity index comparisons demonstrated that the predominant mucosa-associated bacterial community was host specific and uniformly distributed along the colon but significantly different from the fecal community (P < 0.01). The Lactobacillus group-specific profiles were less complex than the profiles reflecting the predominant community. For 6 of the 10 individuals the community of Lactobacillus-like bacteria in the biopsy samples was similar to that in the feces. Amplicons having 99% sequence similarity to the 16S ribosomal DNA of Lactobacillus gasseri were detected in the biopsy samples of nine individuals. No significant differences were observed between healthy and diseased individuals. The observed host-specific DGGE profiles of the mucosa-associated bacterial community in the colon support the hypothesis that host-related factors are involved in the determination of the GI tract microbial community.

Adult↗

PubMed2005

The regulation of hepatic protein synthesis during fasting in the rat.

We have studied translational control in the model of 48 h of fasting in the rat. Our initial observations showed a paradoxical increase in ribosomal protein S6 (rpS6) phosphorylation and a decrease in eukaryotic initiation factor 2alpha (eIF2alpha) phosphorylation. These effects, which would favor an increase in protein synthesis, could be attributed to increased circulating concentrations of branched-chain amino acids in fasting. To determine what mechanisms might account for decreased hepatic translation in fasting, we examined the cap binding complex. eIF4E-bound 4E-BP1 did not increase. However, eIF4E-bound eIF4G and total cellular eIF4G were profoundly decreased in fasted liver. eIF4G mRNA levels were not lower after fasting. Based on the hypothesis that decreased eIF4G translation might account for the reduced eIF4G content, we fractionated ribosomes by sucrose density centrifugation. Immunoblotting for rpS6 showed modest polysomal disaggregation upon fasting. PCR analysis of polysome profiles revealed that a spectrum of mRNAs undergo different translational regulation in the fasted state. In particular, eIF4G was minimally affected by fasting. This indicated that reduced eIF4G abundance in fasting may be a function of its stability, whereas its recovery upon refeeding is necessarily independent of its own involvement in the cap binding complex. Western immunoblotting of polysome fractions showed that phosphorylated rpS6 was disproportionately present in translating polysomes in fed and fasted animals, consistent with a role in translational control. However, the translation of rpS8, an mRNA with a 5'-oligopyrimidine tract, did not coincide with rpS6 phosphorylation, thus dissociating rpS6 phosphorylation from the translational control of this subset of mRNAs.

Animals↗

PubMed1999

The phytoplasma associated with ash yellows and lilac witches'-broom: 'Candidatus phytoplasma fraxini'.

Phytoplasmas associated with the plant diseases ash yellows (AshY, occurring in Fraxinus) and lilac witches'-broom (LWB, occurring in Syringa) represent a putative species-level taxon. Phytoplasmal DNA from 19 ash or lilac sources across the known geographic range of AshY (71-113 degrees W) was examined to determine if AshY and LWB phytoplasmas are a coherent group, if variability exists in both conserved and anonymous DNA, and if variability in 16S rDNA is related to host or geographic origin. The 16S rRNA gene and the 16S-23S spacer were amplified using primer pair P1/P7 and analysed using 15 restriction enzymes. RFLPs were detected in digests obtained with Alul, Hhal or Taql, for a total of four RFLP profile types. Sequencing of the amplimers from strains AshY1T, AshY3, AshY5 and LWB3 (which represent the four 16S rDNA RFLP profile types) revealed only three positions in the 16S rRNA gene and one position in the 16S-23S spacer at which differences occurred; these were single nucleotide substitutions. Sequence homology between any two strains was > 99.8%. A portion of a ribosomal protein operon, amplified with primer pair rpF1/R1 from each of the four strains noted above, was analysed with six restriction enzymes, resulting in the detection of two RFLP profiles with Msel. Southern analysis, utilizing two non-specific probes from other phytoplasma groups, revealed three RFLP profile types in anonymous chromosomal DNA of strains representing the four 16S rDNA genotypes. Two strains, AshY3 and LWB3, had unique combinations of characters in the various assays. On the basis of RFLP profiles, the strains from the other plants sampled comprised two groups. The grouping was not clearly related to host or geographic origin. The genome size of strain AshY3 was estimated from PFGE data to be 645 kbp. Phylogenetic analysis of a 1423 bp 16S rDNA sequence from strains AshY1T, AshY3, AshY5 and LWB3, together with sequences from 14 other mollicutes archived in GenBank, produced a tree on which the AshY and LWB strains clustered as a discrete group, consistent with previous analyses utilizing only type strain AshY1T. Thus, the AshY phytoplasma group is coherent but heterogeneous. The name 'Candidatus Phytoplasma fraxini' is proposed for this group.

Acholeplasmataceae↗

PubMed2001

Novel erythromycin derivatives with aryl groups tethered to the C-6 position are potent protein synthesis inhibitors and active against multidrug-resistant respiratory pathogens.

A novel series of erythromycin derivatives has been discovered with potent activity against key respiratory pathogens, including those resistant to erythromycin. These compounds are characterized by having an aryl group tethered to the C-6 position of the erythronolide skeleton. Extensive structural modification of the C-6 moiety led to the discovery of several promising compounds with potent activity against both mef- and erm-mediated resistant Streptoccoccus pneumoniae. Preliminary mechanistic studies indicated that the new macrolides are potent protein synthesis inhibitors, which interact with methylated ribosomes isolated from resistant organisms. In experimental animal models, these compounds exhibited excellent in vivo efficacy and balanced pharmacokinetic profiles.

Animals↗

PubMed2006

Systematic approach to understanding macrolide-ribosome interactions: NMR and modeling studies of oleandomycin and its derivatives.

The three-dimensional structures of oleandomycin (1) and its derivatives oleandomycin-9-oxime (2) and 10,11-anhydrooleandomycin (3) were determined in different solvents by the combined use of NMR and molecular modeling methods. The experimental NMR data were compared with the results of molecular modeling and known crystal structures of the related molecules. It was shown that the dominant conformation of the lactone ring is the folded-out conformation with some amounts of the folded-in one depending on the solvent and temperature, while desosamine and cladinose sugars adopt the usual chair conformations. Modeling calculations provided evidence for conformational changes in the upper lactone region as well. Saturation transfer difference (STD) NMR experiments have provided information on the binding epitopes of 1-3 in complexes with E. coli ribosomes. The obtained molecular surfaces in close contact with ribosomes were compared with recently available 3D structures of the related macrolide-ribosome complexes, and the observed differences were discussed. The knowledge gained from this study can serve as a platform for the design of novel macrolides with an improved biological profile.

Anti-Bacterial Agents↗

PubMed2003

Bacterial diversity in a marine methanol-fed denitrification reactor at the montreal biodome, Canada.

The bacterial biota of a methanol-fed denitrification reactor used to treat seawater at the Montreal Biodome were investigated using culture-dependent and molecular biology methods. The microbiota extracted from the reactor carriers were cultivated on three media. Three isolate types were recovered and their 16S ribosomal DNA (rDNA) genes were determined. The analysis showed that the isolate types were related to alpha-Proteobacteria. They are members of the Hyphomicrobium and Paracoccus genera and the Phyllobacteriaceae family. Uncultured bacteria were identified through a 16S rDNA library generated from total DNA extracted from the microbiota. Clones were screened for different restriction profiles and for different DGGE (denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis) migration profiles. More than 70% of clones have the same restriction profile, and the sequence of representative clones showed a relation with the Methylophaga members of the Piscirickettsia family (gamma-Proteobacteria). Sequences from other profiles were related to bacterial species involved in denitrification. The number of species in the denitrification reactor was estimated at 15. Bacterial colonization on newly added carriers in the denitrification reactor was monitored by PCR-DGGE. The DGGE migration profiles evolved during the first 5 weeks and then remained essentially unchanged. PCR-DGGE was also used to monitor the microbial profiles in various aquarium locations. As expected, bacterial populations differed from one location to another, except for the sand and trickling filters which presented similar DGGE migration profiles.

Alphaproteobacteria↗

PubMed2004

A dynamic transcriptional network communicates growth potential to ribosome synthesis and critical cell size.

Cell-size homeostasis entails a fundamental balance between growth and division. The budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae establishes this balance by enforcing growth to a critical cell size prior to cell cycle commitment (Start) in late G1 phase. Nutrients modulate the critical size threshold, such that cells are large in rich medium and small in poor medium. Here, we show that two potent negative regulators of Start, Sfp1 and Sch9, are activators of the ribosomal protein (RP) and ribosome biogenesis (Ribi) regulons, the transcriptional programs that dictate ribosome synthesis rate in accord with environmental and intracellular conditions. Sfp1 and Sch9 are required for carbon-source modulation of cell size and are regulated at the level of nuclear localization and abundance, respectively. Sfp1 nuclear concentration responds rapidly to nutrient and stress conditions and is regulated by the Ras/PKA and TOR signaling pathways. In turn, Sfp1 influences the nuclear localization of Fhl1 and Ifh1, which bind to RP gene promoters. Starvation or the absence of Sfp1 causes Fhl1 and Ifh1 to localize to nucleolar regions, concomitant with reduced RP gene transcription. These findings suggest that nutrient signals set the critical cell-size threshold via Sfp1 and Sch9-mediated control of ribosome biosynthetic rates.

AMP-Activated Protein Kinases↗

PubMed2006

Global transcriptome analysis of genetically identified neurons in the adult cortex.

The enormous cellular complexity of the brain is a major obstacle for gene expression profiling of neurological disease models, because physiologically relevant changes of transcription in a specific neuronal subset are likely to be lost in the presence of other neurons and glia. We solved this problem in transgenic mice by labeling genetically defined cells with a nuclear variant of GFP. When combined with laser-directed microdissection, intact RNA from unfixed, freeze-dried sections can be isolated, which is a prerequisite for high-quality global transcriptome analysis. Here, we compared gene expression profiles between pyramidal motor neurons and pyramidal somatosensory neurons captured from layer V of the adult neocortex. One striking feature of motor neurons is the elevated expression of ribosomal genes and genes involved in ATP synthesis. This suggests a molecular adaptation of the upper motor neurons to longer axonal projections and higher electrical activity. These molecular signatures were not detected when cortical layers and microareas were analyzed in toto. Additionally, we used microarrays to determine the global mRNA expression profiles of microdissected Purkinje cells and cellularly complex cerebellar cortex microregions. In summary, our analysis shows that cellularly complex targets lead to averaged gene expression profiles that lack substantial amounts of cell type-specific information. Thus, cell type-restricted sampling strategies are mandatory in the CNS. The combined use of a genetic label with laser-microdissection offers an unbiased approach to map patterns of gene expression onto practically any cell type of the brain.

Adenosine Triphosphate↗

PubMed2005

Molecular characterization of thyroid toxicity: anchoring gene expression profiles to biochemical and pathologic end points.

Organic iodides have been shown to induce thyroid hypertrophy and increase alterations in colloid in rats, although the mechanism involved in this toxicity is unclear. To evaluate the effect that free iodide has on thyroid toxicity, we exposed rats for 2 weeks by daily gavage to sodium iodide (NaI). To compare the effects of compounds with alternative mechanisms (increased thyroid hormone metabolism and decreased thyroid hormone synthesis, respectively), we also examined phenobarbital (PB) and propylthiouracil (PTU) as model thyroid toxicants. Follicular cell hypertrophy and pale-staining colloid were present in thyroid glands from PB-treated rats, and more severe hypertrophy/colloid changes along with diffuse hyperplasia were present in thyroid glands from PTU-treated rats. In PB- and PTU-treated rats, thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) levels were significantly elevated, and both thyroxine and triiodothyronine hormone levels were significantly decreased. PB induced hepatic uridine diphosphate-glucuronyltransferase (UDPGT) activity almost 2-fold, whereas PTU reduced hepatic 5 -deiodinase I (5 -DI) activity to < 10% of control in support of previous reports regarding the mechanism of action of each chemical. NaI also significantly altered liver weights and UDPGT activity but did not affect thyroid hormone levels or thyroid pathology. Thyroid gene expression analyses using Affymetrix U34A GeneChips, a regularized t-test, and Gene Map Annotator and Pathway Profiler demonstrated significant changes in rhodopsin-like G-protein-coupled receptor transcripts from all chemicals tested. NaI demonstrated dose-dependent changes in multiple oxidative stress-related genes, as also determined by principal component and linear regression analyses. Differential transcript profiles, possibly relevant to rodent follicular cell tumor outcomes, were observed in rats exposed to PB and PTU, including genes involved in Wnt signaling and ribosomal protein expression.

Animals↗