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Are traditional healers the solution to the failures of primary health care in rural Nepal?

In the last two decades the great expansion of Primary Health Care (PHC) in the rural areas of developing countries has not been matched by significant improvements in health standards. Nepal is no exception. This study explores the view that some of these failures derive from the communication difficulties that exist between the rural health services and the client population. In other parts of the world traditional healers have been used as go-betweens to overcome these difficulties. In this study a group of 22 Traditional Medical Practitioners in a district of North Eastern Nepal were trained as TB and Leprosy referral agents. Ways of integrating them into existing rural health services were explored by discussion between themselves and local government health workers. Our results suggest that they are interested in participating in PHC delivery. Their specific task of referring patients proved more successful for leprosy than for TB. While their most important influence was a general effect of improving attendance at rural health facilities. This improved attendance is likely to be their chief success at raising health standards. By improving the communication between the health facilities and the people; the confidence of local people in PHC is raised, this brings more people into contact with the services and thereby raises health standards.

Health Services, Indigenous↗

Natural hazards: causes and effects. Lesson 5--Tropical cyclones (hurricanes, typhoons, baguios, cordonazos, tainos).

The many conclusions drawn and lessons learned from past cyclones can be used to mitigate and better respond to future occurrences. Some of the most helpful are listed below: 1) Outbreaks of cholera do not follow cyclones. Cholera must be endemic previously to a community; 2) Waterborne diseases do not increase as a result of cyclones; 3) Massive food aid rarely is required after a cyclone; 4) Used clothing almost never is needed. It usually is culturally inappropriate. Though accepted by disaster victims, it almost never is worn; 5) Blankets can be useful, but if they are needed, they usually can be found locally and do not need to be imported; 6) Assistance by outsiders is most effective in the reconstruction period, not the emergency phase; 7) Most needs are met by the victims themselves or their local governments; 8) In general, victims do not respond to disasters with abnormal behavior. Cyclones do not incite panic, hysteria, or rioting; 9) Cyclone relief and reconstruction programs should be integrated with long-term development programs; 10) When properly executed, reconstruction assistance can provide a strong stimulus to recovery and a base for future development work; 11) Reconstruction programs should seek to reduce vulnerability to future disaster; 12) Re-establishment of the local economy, income security, and agriculture usually are more important to cyclone victims than is material assistance; and 13) Churches, schools, and other large buildings that often are designated as cyclone shelters usually are not safe. The number of deaths attributed to destroyed or flooded shelters is alarming. Most experts agree that the best alternative is adequate warning and evacuation of the threatened areas.

Disaster Planning↗

[Psychiatry in the suburbs and suburbs of psychiatry].

A psychiatric service near Paris has opened two mobile units with the help and the support of local governments. The authors review their first year's activities involving preliminary consultation with patients without, in the first instance, prescribing treatment or giving any formal diagnosis. The team's action is resolutely preventive. The care of people at risk before they become really mentally ill. Psychiatry is brought from behind the closed doors of institutions to seek the cooperation of social workers and others in bringing about a better understanding of mental illnesses in local communities.

Community Mental Health Services↗

Health and welfare data on optical memory cards in Isehara city.

An off-line network system of health and welfare for elderly people using optical memory cards has been established in Isehara city (Japan) since 1991. 2775 citizens have the cards and 24 offices have the terminals. It covers almost one third of people aged over 65 in Isehara city and almost all of the offices concerned with their health and welfare. About a half of holders use optical memory cards every time they visit these offices. The optical memory card holds data including basic data for health and welfare, health check data over 5 years, medical images with scripts and history of welfare services. All the data are used for medical care, health consultation and management of health and welfare services. A card can hold health and welfare data for a lifetime, and it is easy to expand the system. It has been a good experience for us, because the optical memory card system needs co-operation among citizens, medical association and local government, and the experience will help us to expand the system in the future.

Aged↗

Human African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness): new endemic foci in Bendel State, Nigeria.

Human African Trypanosomiasis (Sleeping Sickness) surveys were conducted in five communities in Ethiope and Ndokwa Local Government Areas of Bendel State, Southern Nigeria. Of 670 individuals screened for the disease with the Card Agglutination Test for Trypanosomiasis (CATT), 84 (12.53%) were positive while 45 (6.72%) had traces of antibodies against Trypanosoma brucei gambiense in their blood. Trypanosomes were also demonstrated in the gland juices of 22 individuals following gland punctures and microscopic examination of the aspirates. Analysis of 86 serum samples obtained from the blood randomly collected from individuals in the localities, using the qualitative methods of CATT and Cellognost (Indirect Haemagglutination - IHA) showed that 58 (67.44%) and 57 (66.28%), were seropositive for sleeping sickness, respectively. Further titration of 72 of these serum samples using the Cellognost quantitative method showed 50 samples with antibody titres above 1:20. The clinical manifestations of sleeping sickness recorded in positive individuals included cervical lymphadenopathy, somnolence, psychosis, unsteady gait and tremors, and reproductive abnormalities reflected by secondary amenorrhea and poor obstetric histories. Our observations indicate that the parts of Bendel State surveyed are probably endemic foci of sleeping sickness hitherto unreported. The effectiveness of the CATT in mass screening of populations at risk from the disease is also highlighted.

Adolescent↗

Essential factors in the implementation of an Expanded Program on Immunization in an urban-periurban community in Nigeria.

The aim of this study was to identify some of the factors that affected the implementation of the Expanded Program on Immunization (EPI) in the Local Government Area (LGA). The study covered the three communities in Calabar LGA. Data on vaccine-eligible children and pregnant women were sought with questionnaires; other information on technical and community aspects of the EPI was gathered with specially designed checklists. EPI coverage for most antigens increased between 70-100% in response to highly-organized immunization campaigns initiated in 1985. In subsequent years, up to 1989, similar campaign-induced responses to national, state and local campaign efforts were observed. In contrast, coverage levels attributable to routine immunization remained unsatisfactory. When tested with the Z-statistic using 1985 as the base year (p < 0.05), there was a significant difference between the proportion of eligible children and pregnant women who did not receive their full dose of immunization. Socio-logistic variables found to be important in EPI implementations included scheduling, health staff attitude, intersectoral collaboration, and health education. Lack of community participation was also found to be a crucial constraining factor. As community participation/involvement is critical in sustaining health programs, social marketing techniques are suggested for future use.

Female↗

Uniform administrative requirements for grants and agreements with institutions of higher education, hospitals and other non-profit organizations, and with commercial organizations, foreign governments, organizations under the jurisdiction of foreign governments, and international organizations--DOL. Final rule.

The Department of Labor is issuing these regulations pursuant to the requirements of the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) Circular No. A-110 (Revised), which provides standards for obtaining consistency and uniformity among Federal agencies in the administration of grants and agreements with institutions of higher education, hospitals, and other non-profit organizations. This rule also applies to the Department of Labor's grants to commercial organizations, foreign governments, organizations under the jurisdiction of foreign governments and international organizations. OMB issued Circular A-110 in 1976 and, except for a minor revision in February 1987, the Circular remained unchanged until revised in 1993. To update the Circular, OMB established an interagency task force to review the Circular. The task force solicited suggestions for changes to the Circular from university groups, non-profit organizations and other interested parties and compared for consistency the provisions of similar provisions applied to State and local governments. The revised Circular and these regulations reflect the results of these efforts.

Economics, Hospital↗

Prevalence and causes of blindness in a tropical African population.

UNLABELLED: A population based survey of Egbedore Local Government area (LGA), a tropical African population in Osun State, Nigeria was conducted to determine the prevalence and causes of blindness in the community, Osun State, one of the new states created on 27th August, 1991 is situated in the southwest region of Nigeria. It has a population of about 2, 654,244 using the population growth rate of 3.0 percent per year. Egbedore LGA has a population of 49,555 being the projected estimate of the local census done in 1991. STUDY DESIGN: The study was in accordance with World Health Organisation recommendations. 3204 rural dwellers were examined. The survey team was divided into: 1. Registration team 2. Retrieval team 3. Visual acuity team 4. Ocular examination team. The survey candidates, once registered were asked to go to a nearby school or health center where visual acuity and ocular examination teams completed the assignment. The retrieval team consisted of an ophthalmic nurse and a local escort who persuaded and brought to examination site registered individuals who failed to appear voluntarily. Ocular examination team performed the eye examination. Analysis of data was done using personal computer AT model and systat package for analysis. RESULT: It is found that 1.18% of the population was blind by WHO standard. Cataract alone accounted for 47.4% of the blind, uncorrected aphakia 18.4%, glaucoma 15.8%, phthisis bulbi 5.3%, uveitis, optic atrophy, macular degeneration, retinitis pigmentosa and refractive error all accounted for 2.6% each. CONCLUSION: More than half of the burden of blindness is potentially curable. About a third is preventable through health education, early diagnosis and prompt treatment. A cataract outreach programme with provision of low cost aphakic glasses will go a long way in reducing blindness in this community and Osun State in general.

Adolescent↗

The 1990 objectives for the nation for injury prevention: a progress review.

Unintentional injuries are the principal cause of preventable early death. Beyond terms of human suffering and death, injuries place enormous burdens on this country's economic and health care resources. Demographic, sociological, environmental, and behavioral factors that influence our society contribute to the complexity and scope of the injury problem. Progress in injury prevention will be achieved only through the combined efforts of individuals, organizations, and government at every level of our society. The Federal Government is an important contributor to this process through its role of leading, catalyzing, and providing strategic support. Within the Department of Health and Human Services, numerous agencies have major injury prevention components with a broad range of responsibilities, including the direct delivery of services, establishment of safety standards, sponsorship of education and information efforts, building of the capacity of other sectors, basic and applied research, and surveillance. The Centers for Disease Control, as the lead agency, assists State and local health departments in their injury prevention efforts and coordinates activities undertaken jointly by Federal agencies, State and local governments, and private-sector organizations. To meet the 1990 Objectives for the Nation with respect to injury prevention, both the public health and private-sector providers must recognize the injury problem of the 1980s. Without the support and involvement of the public health and provider communities and of the private sector, injuries and their costs will continue at their present alarming rates. The opportunity is great for promoting health, preventing injuries, and reducing associated costs to society. Making the best of this opportunity is our challenge during this decade.

Accident Prevention↗

Electrodialysis and nanofiltration of surface water for subsequent use as infiltration water.

In order to achieve stable groundwater levels, an equilibrium between the use of groundwater for drinking water production and natural or artificial groundwater recharge by infiltration is needed. Local governments usually require that the composition of the water used for artificial recharge is similar to the surface water that is naturally present in the specific recharge area. In this paper, electrodialysis (ED) and nanofiltration were evaluated as possible treatment technologies for surface water from a canal in Flanders, the North of Belgium, in view of infiltration at critical places on heathlands. Both methods were evaluated on the basis of a comparison between the water composition after treatment and the composition of local surface waters. The treatment generally consists of a tuning of pH and the removal of contaminants originating from industrial and agricultural activity, e.g., nitrates and pesticides. Further evaluation of the influence of the composition of the water on the characteristics of the artificial recharge, however, was not envisaged. In a case study of water from the canal Schoten-Dessel, satisfactory concentration reductions of Cl(-), SO(4)(2-), NO(3)(-), HCO(3)(-), Na(+), Mg(2+), K(+) and Ca(2+) were obtained by ultrafiltration pretreatment followed by ED. Nanofiltration with UTC-20, N30F, Desal 51 HL, UTC-60 and Desal 5 DL membranes resulted in an insufficient removal level, especially for the monovalent ions.

Electrochemistry↗

Public health medicine advice to local authorities: does it happen?

The views of public health physicians on the extent and quality of their specialty's collaboration with local government in Scotland was ascertained by postal questionnaire. Responses were received from 84 out of 97 (85%) Consultants in Public Health Medicine (CPHMs) working in Scottish health boards. Those working in health boards were more likely than colleagues in university departments to consider their service department to be sufficiently aware of and involved in issues having a bearing on health but not directly related to provision of health services (48/70 vs 4/12, RR 2.1, 95% CI 1.1-3.8). Seventy CPHMs gave advice to local authorities. They were in contact with a median of two local authority departments (range 0-6); most commonly Social Work (38 CPHMs), Environmental Health (36), and Education (26). CPHMs participated in a median of one multi-disciplinary group (range 0-3); most commonly Health Promotion (16 CPHMs), Child Welfare (9), Emergency Planning (9). The majority, 42 of 67 (63%), valued this contact highly, only three considering it of doubtful utility. Difficulties with bringing an item to the attention of a local authority department were identified by six out of 56 (11%) CPHMs and 32/69 (46%) recorded problems in ensuring Public Health Medicine input to local authority committees. In most health boards (12/14) there were formal meetings between CPHMs and heads of local authority departments; in each these were supplemented by informal meetings. One Director of Public Health and eight other CPHMs reported neither formal nor informal contact with local authorities. Spontaneous comments from respondents indicated a desire to strengthen the links with local authority departments.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Humans↗

A micro case study of the legal and administrative arrangements for river health in the Kangaroo River (NSW).

Kangaroo Valley is a drinking water supply catchment for Kangaroo Valley village, parts of the Southern Highlands and Sydney. It is also a popular recreation area both for swimming and canoeing. Land use has traditionally been dominated by dairy farming but there has been significant and continuing development of land for hobby farms and rural residential subdivision. Dairy industry restructuring has affected the viability of some farms in the Valley and created additional pressure for subdivision. River health is a function of flows, water quality, riparian vegetation, geomorphology and aquatic habitat and riverine biota. River flows in the Kangaroo River are affected by water extraction and storage for urban water supply and extraction by commercial irrigators and riparian land holders which have a significant impact at low flows. Current water quality often does not meet ANZECC Guidelines for primary contact and recreation and the river is a poor source of raw drinking water. Key sources of contaminants are wastewater runoff from agriculture, and poorly performing on-site sewage management systems. Riparian vegetation, which is critical to the maintenance of in-stream ecosystems suffers from uncontrolled stock access and weed infestation. The management of land use and resulting diffuse pollution sources is critical to the long term health of the river. The Healthy Rivers Commission of New South Wales Independent Inquiry into the Shoalhaven River System Final Report July, 1999 found that the longer term protection of the health of the Kangaroo River is contingent upon achievement of patterns of land use that have regard to land capability and also to the capability of the river to withstand the impacts of inappropriate or poorly managed land uses. This micro case study of Kangaroo Valley examines the complex legal and administrative arrangements with particular reference to the management of diffuse pollution for river health. In the past, diffuse pollution has fallen through the gaps in legislation and its administration. Although water pollution legislation is broad enough to embrace diffuse pollution, in practice the Environment Protection Authority has focused on regulating point sources. Water legislation has traditionally been concerned with issues of water quantity rather than water quality. Legislation which allows agency intervention in relation to land degradation has grown from soil conservation roots, neglecting the flow-on effects upon water quality. Under the land use planning system existing land uses are protected from new regulatory requirements. A number of recent developments in NSW law and its administration have set the scene for addressing this past neglect. Water planning provisions in the Water Management Act 2000 have the potential to enable community based Water Management Committees to move away from a narrow focus on water quantity to the broader issues of river health, including water quality. Improved management of on-site sewage management systems is expected as a result of the Local Government (Approvals) Amendment (Sewage Management Regulation) 1998. A draft Regional Environmental Plan prepared for the Sydney Catchment Authority aims to improve the assessment of new development in terms of its impact on drinking water quality. It also moves away from an exclusive concern with controlling new development towards grappling with existing uses. Proposed amendments to the Environmental Planning and Assessment Act, 1979 as detailed in the White Paper, Plan First (2001) include the integration of imperatives derived from catchment strategies and water management plans into local land use plans.

Animals↗

Epidemiology of rabies in northern Nigeria.

Data on the rabies situation in Kaduna State, in northern Nigeria, were obtained by questionnaire and interview with all Divisional Veterinary Officers, physicians, hospital superintendents, village and hamlet heads or chiefs in various local government areas. All persons reporting animal bites to the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, were also interviewed. Direct immunofluorescence staining, using both the regular conjugated anti-rabies globulin and a conjugated monoclonal antibody battery to lyssaviruses, was performed on brain samples from suspect animals sent to the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine. There were more dogs, and consequently more rabies outbreaks, in the southern part of the state than in the north; this did not appear to be associated with the religious beliefs of the local population. There seems to be a cyclic pattern of distribution of the outbreaks. Most dogs involved in bites had identifiable owners (74.5%), were older than one year (70.0%), and were not vaccinated (75.5%). Male children (under 10 years) were the high risk group for dog bites. Rabies cases seemed to cluster around April and September, corresponding to breeding seasons for dogs in Zaria. All the isolates checked by conjugated monoclonal antibodies for lyssaviruses were found to be rabies. Enforcing leash laws, vaccination of dogs against rabies especially before the breeding seasons, and control of stray and free-roaming dogs would reduce the incidence of rabies in Kaduna State.

Adolescent↗

Do social policies and political context matter for health in the United Kingdom?

This U.K. case study combines lessons from historical assessments with new empirical analyses of trends over the last decade to inform an appraisal of the impact of social actions on health. The empirical analyses examine life expectancy in the 354 local government councils in England by first identifying those that have better or worse health than expected fromtheir socioeconomic profile, and then selecting paired sets of "overachievers" and "underachievers" for more in-depth analysis. The findings taken as a whole provide evidence that social policies and political context do indeed matter for health. The historical material from the first industrial revolution, in particular, provides some of the most compelling evidence for this proposition. The empirical analyses over the last decade found a very powerful inverse association: the more deprived the local council, the lower the life expectancy of the population within that locality. However, even for the same level of deprivation and socioeconomic characteristics, some councils were doing much better than others in terms of health: for example, more than three years difference in life expectancy for carefully matched "urban fringe" councils. The article then examines the councils' political makeup and hence their likely policy perspective.

Health Services Research↗

Diarrhea and ARI in rural areas of Bangladesh.

In Bangladesh, one third of the total child death burden is due to diarrhea. Every year, a rural child suffers on average from 4.6 episodes of diarrhea, from which about 230,000 children die. In this study, information was collected from 8,287 children under five years of age and 7,082 caretakers in 120 clusters chosen by a two-stage random cluster sampling method. As compared to the baseline survey, carried out in 1996, children now are about 30% less likely to suffer from diarrhea, and the risk of dying has been reduced by 60%. Although the 2-weeks prevalence of acute respiratory infection (ARI) has risen from 39% (1996) to 46% and that of Acute Respiratory Infections needing assessment (ANA) from 12.4% to 16.9%, now more caretakers (59.9%) than in 1996 (56.7%) are able to identify correctly danger signs for seeking care and 58.4% (1996: 46.6%) of parents seek help when danger signs are present. Similar for diarrhea and ARI, village doctors and traditional healers are most frequently sought for help by caretakers; government health centers and hospitals are sought to a much lesser degree. Since 1996, intervention activities were implemented for four years in the study area using an IEC strategy. This strategy included raising awareness and training of health personnel, NGO personnel and village volunteers, especially women. Diarrhea issues were included in school health education with emphasis on practical exercises of diarrhea management. For all target groups (health personnel, village volunteers, NGOs, mothers and school children) specific education material was developed and deployed. In the political arena, women leaders who are part of the local government were included in an awareness-raising campaign. The results of the study undertaken over four years later show that in a relatively short time behavior of mostly poor and illiterate caretakers can be changed leading to a significant reduction of ARI mortality and diarrhea morbidity, and mortality in children.

Acute Disease↗

Multi-institutional arrangements: relationships between governing boards and hospital chief executive officers.

This investigation focuses on the impact of multi-institutional arrangements on the role of governing boards in limiting or enhancing the managerial autonomy of individual hospitals. Data from a 1979 Special Survey by the American Hospital Association (N = 4213) are used to examine governing board-administrator relationships as a function of the degree of autonomy and scope of responsibility of the hospital governing board. It is hypothesized that governing boards responsible for multiple hospitals or for multiple nonhospital organizations and those boards accountable to a higher organizational authority will exercise more formal control over hospital chief executive officers (CEOs) than will boards of single or autonomous hospitals. The analysis assumes that formal control by the governing board over the management function of the individual hospital is exercised partly through soliciting or limiting participation by hospital administrators in key policy decisions and through the evaluation of administrative performance. Therefore, it is anticipated that hospitals governed by boards with multiple responsibilities as well as hospitals governed by boards accountable to a higher authority will be (1) less likely to have CEOs who are members of the governing board executive committee, (2) more likely to have annual performance reviews of the CEO by the governing board, and (3) more likely to have such reviews conducted according to preestablished criteria. Study results provide general support for the hypotheses with respect to hospital boards with multiple responsibilities: the data suggest that such boards do exercise greater control over hospital administrators and these effects do appear to be stronger for hospitals in the private sector. Hospitals governed by boards accountable to a higher authority, however, are more likely to have CEOs who are members of the governing board executive committee--a pattern in direct opposition to that hypothesized. Furthermore, these boards are no more likely to conduct annual CEO performance reviews than are boards with more autonomy. Boards accountable to higher authorities are more likely, however, to use preestablished criteria when such reviews are conducted. This general pattern is similar whether hospital boards are accountable to religious authorities, to investor-owned corporate boards, or to the boards of not-for-profit multi-institutional systems. A different pattern emerges, however, for boards accountable to a state, county, or local government authority.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Employee Performance Appraisal↗

The end of an era: what became of the "managed care revolution" in 2001?

OBJECTIVE: To describe how the organization and dynamics of health systems changed between 1999 and 2001, in the context of expectations from the mid-1990s when managed care was in ascendance, and assess the implications for consumers and policymakers. DATA SOURCES/STUDY SETTING: Data are from the Community Tracking Study site visits to 12 communities that were randomly selected to be nationally representative of metropolitan areas with 200,000 people or more. The Community Tracking Study is an ongoing effort that began in 1996 and is fielded every two years. STUDY DESIGN: Semistructured interviews were conducted with 50-90 stakeholders and observers of the local health care market in each of the 12 communities every two years. Respondents include leaders of local hospitals, health plans, and physician organizations and representatives of major employers, state and local governments, and consumer groups. First round interviews were conducted in 1996-1997 and subsequent rounds of interviews were conducted in 1998-1999 and 2000-2001. A total of 1,690 interviews were conducted between 1996 and 2001. DATA ANALYSIS METHODS: Interview information was stored and coded in qualitative data analysis software. Data were analyzed to identify patterns and themes within and across study sites and conclusions were verified by triangulating responses from different respondent types, examining outliers, searching for disconfirming evidence, and testing rival explanations. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Since the mid-1990s, managed care has developed differently than expected in local health care markets nationally. Three key developments shaped health care markets between 1999 and 2001: (1) unprecedented, sustained economic growth that resulted in extremely tight labor markets and made employers highly responsive to employee demands for even fewer restrictions on access to care; (2) health plans increasingly moved away from core strategies in the "managed care toolbox"; and (3) providers gained leverage relative to managed care plans and reverted to more traditional strategies of competing for patients based on services and amenities. CONCLUSIONS: Changes in local health care markets have contributed to rising costs and created new access problems for consumers. Moreover, the trajectory of change promises to make the goals of cost-control and quality improvement more difficult to achieve in the future.

Community Health Services↗

[Social welfare in the care of chronically ill psychiatric patients].

The article shows the development of the long-stay departments at the psychiatric hospitals in Eastern Germany from the perspective of a local government. Against the apparently increasing scepticism of concepts of de-institutionalisation, the example of the city Leipzig is used to show how the process of reintegrating residents of long-stay institutions can be supported, and how decentralized out-patient psychosocial services--which can also be used by the community inhabitants--can be built up at the same time. Reference is also made to the well-developed out-patient services and clearly structured treatment offers for the inpatient sector which have already existed in the city before the political changes in Eastern Germany. Further, the role of the local Social Welfare Office in the realization of de-institutionalisation projects will be outlined.

Ambulatory Care Facilities↗