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At least 613 records · Page 34Linked to original sources

PubMed2006

Transperitoneal versus extraperitoneal robotic-assisted radical prostatectomy: is one better than the other?

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the differences, if any, in outcomes with transperitoneal (TP) versus extraperitoneal (EP) approaches during robotic-assisted radical prostatectomy (RARP). METHODS: We reviewed the data from 40 consecutive patients who underwent EP-RARP at our institution by the same surgical team. The outcomes were compared with those of 40 consecutive patients who underwent TP-RARP performed by the same team in a nonrandomized manner. The operative and postoperative parameters (total operative time, estimated blood loss, length of stay, robotic console time, and robotic anastomosis time), as well as complications and surgical margin status, were analyzed and compared. RESULTS: The patient demographics were similar in both groups. Nerve sparing was performed in 35 and 36 patients in the TP and EP groups, respectively. Pelvic lymphadenectomy was performed in 14 and 12 patients in the TP and EP groups, respectively. The operative time was slightly longer with the TP approach at 236 minutes (range 111 to 360) compared with 229 minutes (range 143 to 382) in the EP group, but the difference was not statistically significant (P = 0.5722) between the two groups. Also, the differences in robot console time, anastomosis time, estimated blood loss, and length of stay were not statistically significant between the two groups at the 5% significance level. The complication and positive surgical margin rates were similar in both groups. CONCLUSIONS: As expected, the EP approach is feasible with RARP. Our data suggest that the EP approach is comparable to the TP approach and produces favorable outcomes. Surgeon preference will likely play a significant role in the approach used.

Aged↗

PubMed2006

Robotic-assisted laparoscopic prostatectomy: first 100 patients with one year of follow-up.

OBJECTIVES: To report our initial experience of 100 patients with robotic-assisted laparoscopic radical prostatectomy. Continued technological advances have expanded our armamentarium of minimally invasive devices and techniques to offer our patients. Robotic-assisted laparoscopic radical prostatectomy has been adopted at many centers. METHODS: This was a nonrandomized prospective study evaluating our initial 100 patients who underwent robotic-assisted laparoscopic radical prostatectomy. The follow-up data were obtained prospectively using the validated Rand 36-item health survey, version 2, and the University of California, Los Angeles, Prostate Cancer Index preoperatively and at 1, 3, 6, and 12 months postoperatively. Patients who required open conversion were excluded from the outcome analysis. Patients who received a sural nerve graft were excluded from the operative analysis. RESULTS: The average age and body mass index of all patients were 58.4 years (range 42 to 70) and 28.5 kg/m2 (range 18.1 to 50.6), respectively, with a median follow-up of 12 months. The average prostate-specific antigen level was 6.07 ng/mL. Seven patients required conversion to an open technique, and four underwent sural nerve grafting. The positive surgical margin rate was 16% (15 of 92). Using the Rand 36-item health survey, version 2, and the University of California, Los Angeles, Prostate Cancer Index health surveys, the average percentage of return to baseline urinary function was 52%, 70%, 79%, and 84% at 1, 3, 6, and 12 months, respectively. The overall average percentage of return to baseline sexual function was 51%, 58%, 66%, and 80% at 1, 3, 6, and 12 months, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Robotic-assisted laparoscopic radical prostatectomy is a safe and efficient method for achieving prostate cancer control even during the initial learning curve for this procedure.

Adult↗

PubMed1998

[Robotics in neurosurgery: current status and future prospects].

Neurosurgery is in essence a field of application development for robots, based on multimodal image guidance. Specific motorized tools have already been developed and routinely applied in stereotaxy to position a probe holder or in conventional neurosurgery to hold a microscope oriented towards a given target. The potentialities of these approaches have triggered industrial developments which are now commercially available. These systems use databases, primarily coming from multimodal numerical images from X-ray radiology to magnetic resonance imaging. These spatially encoded data are transferred through digital networks to workstations where images can be processed and surgical procedures are pre-planned, then transferred to the robotic systems to which they are connected. We have been using a stereotaxic robot since 1989 and a microscope robot since 1995 in various surgical routine procedures. The future of these applications rely mainly on the technical progress in informatics, about image recognition to adapt the pre-planning to the actual surgical situation, to correct brain shifts (for instance), about image fusion, integrated knowledge such as brain atlases, as well as virtual reality. The future developments, covering surgical procedure, research and teaching, are sure to be far beyond our wildest expectations.

Forecasting↗

PubMed2000

Robotic-assisted instruments enhance minimally invasive mitral valve surgery.

BACKGROUND: The potential for totally endoscopic mitral valve surgery has been advanced by the development of minimally invasive techniques. Recently surgical robots have offered instrument access through small ports, obviating the need for a significant thoracotomy. This study tested the hypothesis that a microsurgical robot with 5 degrees of freedom is capable of performing an endoscopic mitral valve replacement (MVR). METHODS: Dogs (n = 6) were placed on peripheral cardiopulmonary bypass; aortic occlusion was achieved with endoaortic clamping and transesophageal echocardiographic control. A small left seventh interspace "service entrance" incision was used to insert sutures, retractor blade, and valve prosthesis. Robotically controlled instruments included a thoracoscope and 5-mm needle holders. MVR was performed using an interrupted suture technique. RESULTS: Excellent visualization was achieved with the thoracoscope. Instrument setup required 25.8 minutes (range 12 to 37); valve replacement required 69.3+/-5.39 minutes (range 48 to 78). MVR was accomplished with normal prosthetic valve function and without misplaced sutures or inadvertent injuries. CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrates the feasibility of adjunctive use of robotic instrumentation for minimally invasive MVR. Clinical trials are indicated.

Animals↗

PubMed2001

Initial prospective multicenter clinical trial of robotically-assisted coronary artery bypass grafting.

BACKGROUND: This multicenter prospective trial was designed to assess the safety and efficacy of using a robotically-assisted microsurgical system to create endoscopic coronary anastomoses. METHODS: . Thirty-two patients scheduled for elective primary coronary surgery underwent endoscopic anastomosis of the left internal thoracic artery (LITA) to the left anterior descending (LAD) artery. Three thoracic ports (two for instruments and one for a camera) were placed, and a robotic system was used to perform the LITA-LAD graft. Conventional techniques were used to perform the other grafts. Thirty-one patients underwent median sternotomy and 1 patient underwent a limited anterior thoracotomy. RESULTS: . Graft flow was measured in the operating room and averaged 37 +/- 19 mL/min. Mean anastomosis time was 24 +/- 9 minutes. There were three intraoperative revisions (9%). Two were for inadequate flow and one for an inadvertent injury. Each of these grafts was successfully revised by hand. There were no technical failures of the robotic system. Average postoperative length of stay was 5.5 +/- 2.7 days. There were three reoperations for bleeding, but none of these were related to the LAD anastomosis. Two months following the operation, selective angiography revealed a graft patency of 93%. The patients have been followed for 16 +/- 4 months. CONCLUSIONS: This initial prospective multicenter trial documents the feasibility of robotically-assisted coronary bypass grafting. Further trials are warranted to establish the safety and efficacy of this new technology.

Aged↗

PubMed2003

Robotic mitral valve repair: experience with the da Vinci system.

BACKGROUND: As part of a Food and Drug Administration trial, mitral repairs were performed in 38 patients using the robotic da Vinci surgical system (Intuitive Surgical, Inc, Mountain View, CA). Prospectively, we evaluated safety and efficacy in performing both simple and complex mitral repairs. METHODS: Eligible patients had nonischemic moderate to severe mitral insufficiency. Operative techniques included peripheral cardiopulmonary perfusion, a 4- to 5-cm mini-thoracotomy, transthoracic aortic occlusion, and antegrade blood cardioplegia. Transesophageal echocardiograms were done intraoperatively with three-dimensional reconstructions. Successful repairs were defined as mild or less residual regurgitation. RESULTS: Enhanced three-dimensional visualization of mitral leaflets and the subvalvar apparatus allowed safe, dexterous intracardiac tissue manipulation. All patients had successful valve repairs including quadrangular resections, sliding plasties, and edge-to-edge approximations, as well as both chordal transfers and replacements. There were no operative deaths, strokes, or device-related complications. One patient required valve replacement for hemolysis and 1 was reexplored for bleeding. There were no incisional conversions. Both robotic repair and total operating times decreased significantly from 1.9 +/- 0.1 and 5.1 +/- 0.1 hours (mean +/- standard error of the mean) for the first 19 patients to 1.5 +/- 0.1 (p = 0.002) and 4.4 +/- 0.1 hours (p = 0.04) for the last 19 operations, respectively. Total hospital length of stay for patients was 3.8 +/- 0.6 days. Of all patients, 31 (82%) had a 4-day or less length of stay. Seven patients (18%) had stays between 5 and 9 days (6.4 +/- 1.0). CONCLUSIONS: This study shows that the da Vinci surgical system (Intuitive Surgical, Inc) has few limitations in performing complex valve repairs. Articulated wrist-like instruments and three-dimensional visualization enabled precise tissue telemanipulation. Future robotic design advances and adjunctive suture technologies may promote continuing evolution of robotic cardiac operations.

Cardiac Surgical Procedures↗

PubMed2003

Robotic-enhanced biventricular resynchronization: an alternative to endovenous cardiac resynchronization therapy in chronic heart failure.

BACKGROUND: Cardiac resynchronization therapy (CRT) by pacing the left and right ventricles is an emerging option for treatment of severe heart failure with ventricular conduction disturbances. Stimulation through a coronary vein is currently the technique of choice to achieve left ventricular (LV) pacing. Unfortunately, this approach carries significant limitations and drawbacks. Therefore we explored robotic-enhanced thoracoscopic implantation of an epicardial lead as an alternative technique to stimulate the LV in cardiac resynchronization therapy. METHODS: A total of 15 patients were included in this study. Right (atrial and ventricular) leads were implanted classically through the left subclavian vein. Robotic-enhanced thoracoscopy was then performed to implant the LV epicardial lead. RESULTS: Of the 15 patients, 13 underwent successful endoscopic robotic cardiac resynchronization therapy. Two patients underwent conversion to a small thoracotomy. No perioperative complication occurred in the patients who did not undergo conversion. Acute and chronic LV lead thresholds were satisfactory in all patients, improving over time. All were subjectively and objectively improved at 4 months. As compared with conventional methods, the procedural cost was not significantly affected. CONCLUSIONS: Based on this feasibility study, we believe that robotic LV epicardial lead implantation is a valuable option to achieve biventricular resynchronization therapy. It allows for more reproducible acute thresholds for LV pacing and sensing than does the percutaneous approach; enables fine tuning of the LV lead position, thus potentially providing optimal hemodynamic benefit; and avoids the pitfalls and limitations of the endovenous approach. Therefore it deserves further prospective studies to assess its place in the therapeutic armamentarium against heart failure.

Aged↗

PubMed1998

Robotically assisted microsurgery for endoscopic coronary artery bypass grafting.

BACKGROUND: As minimally invasive approaches to cardiac surgery have expanded, a significant number of limitations have become apparent, particularly the lack of adequate precision with standard endoscopic instruments. We hypothesized that the use of robotics would eliminate some of these limitations. METHODS: Twenty-five coronary anastomoses on an isolated porcine heart, using an arterial conduit to the left anterior descending artery, were performed endoscopically with a microsurgical robotic system. Sophisticated robotic engineering was used to control modified endoscopic instruments under direct surgeon control. Computer tremor elimination and motion scaling allowed for precise maneuvering. An arteriotomy was placed in the left anterior descending artery, and an arterial conduit was positioned for anastomosis. The camera and port sites were placed 90 degrees from the long axis of the arteriotomy. A 7-0 Prolene (Ethicon, Somerville, NJ) suture was used to perform the anastomosis in a continuous fashion, begun at the 12 o'clock position and continued counterclockwise. After completion of half of the anastomosis, the conduits were pulled down and the final sutures were placed. The sutures were tied intracorporeally and the procedure was completed. RESULTS: The 25 conduits were successfully completed and showed good probe patency. Average time for completion of the anastomosis was 31.7 +/- 2.0 minutes. Appropriate port placement and orientation, and stabilization of the conduits were critical. The lack of tremor and motion scaling allowed for the precise movements needed to complete an endoscopic microvascular anastomosis. CONCLUSIONS: Coronary artery anastomoses are technically feasible with use of robotic instrumentation. This technology may enable the development of a truly endoscopic approach to bypass surgery.

Anastomosis, Surgical↗

PubMed2000

Initial United States clinical trial of robotically assisted endoscopic coronary artery bypass grafting.

OBJECTIVES: With traditional instruments, endoscopic coronary artery bypass grafting has not been possible. This study was designed to determine the clinical feasibility of using a robotically assisted microsurgical system to create endoscopic coronary anastomoses. METHODS AND RESULTS: Ten patients underwent endoscopic coronary artery bypass grafting of the left internal thoracic artery to the left anterior descending artery. Subxiphoid endoscopic ports (2 for instruments, 1 for a camera) were placed, and a robotic system was used to perform the left internal thoracic artery-left anterior descending artery bypass graft. Conventional techniques were used to perform the other grafts. Blood flow through the left internal thoracic artery graft was measured in the operating room and was adequate in 8 of 10 patients. The 2 inadequate grafts were revised successfully by hand. Six weeks after the operation, selective coronary angiography demonstrated a graft patency of 100% (8/8). There were no technical failures of the robotic system. The only postoperative complication was mediastinal hemorrhage in 1 patient. CONCLUSIONS: This pilot study demonstrates the feasibility of robotically assisted endoscopic coronary artery bypass grafting.

Anastomosis, Surgical↗

PubMed2006

Robotic extraperitoneal radical prostatectomy: an alternative approach.

PURPOSE: Laparoscopic radical prostatectomy with or without a robot has been increasingly performed worldwide, primarily using a transperitoneal approach. We report our experience with daVinci(R) robot assisted extraperitoneal laparoscopic radical prostatectomy. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A total of 325 patients underwent robot assisted extraperitoneal laparoscopic radical prostatectomy for clinically localized prostate cancer at our center during a 2-year period. Perioperative data, and oncological and functional results were prospectively recorded. RESULTS: Perioperative demographics included mean age, PSA and Gleason score, which were 60 years (range 42 to 76), 6.6 ng/ml (range 0.6 to 26) and 6 (range 5 to 9), respectively. Preoperative clinical stage was 81%, 16% and 3% for T1c, T2a and T2b, respectively. Average total operative time was 130 minutes (range 80 to 480). Intraoperative data included a mean blood loss of 196 cc with no open conversions. Bilateral, unilateral and nonnerve sparing prostatectomy was performed in 70%, 24% and 6% of patients, respectively. Of the patients 96% were discharged home within 8 to 23 hours of surgery. Pathological stage was pT2a, pT2b, pT3a and pT3b in 18%, 63%, 14% and 5% of all radical prostatectomy specimens, respectively, with an overall positive surgical margin rate of 13%. Two of 92 patients had positive nodal disease after lymph node dissection. Continence and erectile function were measured. CONCLUSIONS: The extraperitoneal approach offers the advantages of improved dexterity and visualization of the robot, while avoiding the abdominal cavity and potential associated morbidity. As surgeons gain more experience with this new technology, the extraperitoneal approach simulating the standard open retropubic technique is likely to gain popularity.

Adult↗

PubMed2002

Laparoscopic and robot assisted radical prostatectomy: establishment of a structured program and preliminary analysis of outcomes.

PURPOSE: The technique of laparoscopic radical prostatectomy is difficult to master and is associated with a steep learning curve. We hypothesized that a structured approach to establishing a laparoscopic prostatectomy program would diminish complications during the learning process and that robotic technology would be useful in learning the operation. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A structured laparoscopic radical prostatectomy program was introduced at the Vattikuti Urology Institute on October 23, 2000. One of 2 surgeons with a combined experience of more than 500 laparoscopic radical prostatectomies performed or supervised the first prostatectomies, training a third surgeon with extensive "open" surgical skills but no laparoscopic experience. The "trained" surgeon then started performing the operation independently with robotic assistance. The results of this approach were analyzed at the end of 12 months. RESULTS: We performed 48 laparoscopic radical prostatectomies and 50 robot assisted prostatectomies within the 12-month period. The preoperative and intraoperative demographical variables were comparable in both groups as were the operative times, changes in hemoglobin concentrations, durations of hospitalization, positive margin rates and overall complication rates. All measured parameters were comparable to the "best-in-class" values for laparoscopic radical prostatectomy reported in the literature. CONCLUSIONS: A structured approach minimizes complications during the establishment of laparoscopic radical prostatectomy program. Robotic assistance helps skilled "open" surgeons learn the technique of laparoscopic radical prostatectomy.

Humans↗

PubMed2003

Robotics and neurosurgery.

Ultimately, neurosurgery performed via a robotic interface will serve to improve the standard of a neurosurgeon's skills, thus making a good surgeon a better surgeon. In fact, computer and robotic instrumentation will become allies to the neurosurgeon through the use of these technologies in training, diagnostic, and surgical events. Nonetheless, these technologies are still in an early stage of development, and each device developed will entail its own set of challenges and limitations for use in clinical settings. The future operating room should be regarded as an integrated information system incorporating robotic surgical navigators and telecontrolled micromanipulators, with the capabilities of all principal neurosurgical concepts, sharing information, and under the control of a single person, the neurosurgeon. The eventual integration of robotic technology into mainstream clinical neurosurgery offers the promise of a future of safer, more accurate, and less invasive surgery that will result in improved patient outcome.

Clinical Competence↗

PubMed2002

Anderson-Hynes dismembered pyeloplasty performed using the da Vinci robotic system.

INTRODUCTION: To evaluate and describe the use of the da Vinci robotic system in performing laparoscopic Anderson-Hynes pyeloplasty. TECHNICAL CONSIDERATIONS: Between June 2001 and February 2002, 9 patients underwent laparoscopic Anderson-Hynes pyeloplasty with the da Vinci telerobotic surgical system. The diagnosis was based on the presenting symptoms and radiologic imaging findings. The technique for da Vinci-assisted Anderson-Hynes pyeloplasty followed the same steps as for conventional laparoscopy. Three transperitoneal laparoscopic ports were required for the robotic system, and a fourth laparoscopic port was used by the assistant for retraction, suction, and introduction of suture. The operative time, suturing time, perioperative complications, and success rates were prospectively evaluated. The mean operative time was 138.8 minutes (range 80 to 215), and the mean suturing time was 62.4 minutes (range 40 to 115). No intraoperative complications or open conversions were required. The estimated blood loss was less than 50 mL in all cases. The mean length of hospitalization was 4.7 days (range 4 to 11). Postoperatively, 1 (11.1%) of 9 patients required open exploration to repair a defect in the renal pelvis. At a mean follow-up of 4.1 months (range less than 1 to 8), all procedures were successful on the basis of the subjective and radiographic data. CONCLUSIONS: All aspects of laparoscopic Anderson-Hynes pyeloplasty were performed using the da Vinci robotic system. da Vinci-assisted procedures resulted in favorable overall operative times, suturing times, perioperative complications, and available success rates, but additional clinical experience is required. Ongoing clinical application of robotic technology in a controlled scientific manner is needed to gauge the effectiveness of this method completely.

Blood Loss, Surgical↗

PubMed2002

Technique of da Vinci robot-assisted anatomic radical prostatectomy.

OBJECTIVES: Robotic radical prostatectomy is a new procedure for treating prostate cancer. Many centers are attempting this new modality but a detailed description of the technique has not yet been published. We report the technique as performed at the Vattikuti Urology Institute. METHODS: At Vattikuti Urology Institute, we have performed more than 30 such operations and have standardized the technique for safe and reproducible treatment of prostate cancer. We collected the patient data and surgical logs to improve and standardize this procedure. We recorded the operation and made relevant modifications after reviewing the recordings to improve the outcome. RESULTS: The operation was developed on the scientific foundations of anatomic radical prostatectomy as described by Walsh and the laparoscopic prostatectomy developed at Montsouris. Our technique differs from these procedures because of the need for two surgical teams and the use of fine, endo-wrist instruments with three-dimensional stereoscopic visualization. We describe the patient setup, positioning, port placement, preparation of the robot, docking of the arms, and the surgical steps of performing anatomic prostatectomy with robotic assistance. CONCLUSIONS: This report describes the current technique of robotic prostatectomy as developed at the Vattikuti Urology Institute.

Humans↗

PubMed2003

Robotically assisted laparoscopic dismembered pyeloplasty: a chronic porcine study.

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the feasibility and efficacy of robotically assisted laparoscopic dismembered pyeloplasty in an animal model. We also investigated whether the use of a device that lacks tactile feedback results in tissue damage and subsequent stenosis or leaking of the anastomosis. METHODS: Robotically assisted dismembered pyeloplasty was performed on 10 farm pigs. After 1 month, all pigs were anesthetized again for intravenous urography and to remove the kidney and ureter on the operated side. Histopathologic examination of all specimens was performed. RESULTS: All animals survived the initial procedure without complications. In the first five procedures, the time required for the performance of the anastomosis showed a decreasing trend. In the last five procedures, 30 to 40 minutes were required for the anastomosis. The results of urography showed mild hydronephrosis in 1 case (animal 7). The other animals showed no abnormalities. The histopathologic examination of the specimen showed a large foreign body granuloma in the ureteral wall of animal 7 that caused the before-mentioned obstruction. No significant abnormalities were seen in the other animals. CONCLUSIONS: Robotically assisted laparoscopic dismembered pyeloplasty is a technically feasible procedure with an acceptable morbidity in an animal model. No significant histologic effects were seen of the possibly less-delicate tissue handling by the robotic device. The benefit of this technological progress has not yet been established. Therefore, the use of these techniques has to be thoroughly assessed before their clinical application.

Animals↗

PubMed2001

Image-guided robotic delivery system for precise placement of therapeutic agents.

The effectiveness of conventional solid tumor treatment is limited by the systemic toxicity and lack of specificity of chemotherapeutic agents. Present treatment modalities are frequently insufficient to eliminate competent cancer cells without exceeding the limits of toxicity to normal tissue. The coming generation of cancer therapeutics depends on the precise targeting and sustained release of antitumor agents to overcome these limitations. We are developing an image-guided, robotic system for precise intratumoral placement of anticancer drugs and sustained release devices to advance this new treatment paradigm. The robotic system will use intraoperatively obtained computed tomographic (CT) images from a mobile CT scanner for guidance. The concept is to track patient anatomy and localize instruments using currently available optical tracking technology. Tracking will also be used to register patient anatomy with the images. The physician can then use the registered image to select an appropriate tumor target and entry location and to plan the instrument path. This path will then be transmitted to the robot, which orients and drives the instrument to the desired target under physician control. Achievement of the target is confirmed via intraoperative CT. This system will provide instrument guidance that is precise, direct, and controllable. Error due to poor target visualization and hand unsteadiness should be reduced greatly. The basic components of the system (robot, mobile CT, tracking) have been demonstrated in our laboratory, and the integration of the components is in progress. In future work, we plan to fuse preoperative PET imaging with intraoperative CT to allow functional as well as anatomic image guidance.

Antineoplastic Agents↗

PubMed2003

Model surgery with a passive robot arm for orthognathic surgery planning.

PURPOSE: The aims of the study were to assess the degree of accuracy of model surgery performed manually using the Eastman technique and to compare it with model surgery performed with the aid of a robot arm. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Twenty-one patients undergoing orthognathic surgery gave consent for this study. They were divided into 2 groups based on the model surgery technique used. Group A (52%) had model surgery performed manually, whereas group B (48%) had their model surgery performed using the robot arm. Patients' maxillary casts were measured before and after model surgery, and results were compared with those for the original treatment plan in horizontal (x-axis), vertical (y-axis), and transverse (z-axis) planes. RESULTS: Statistical analysis using Mann-Whitney U test for x- and y-axis and independent sample t test for z-axis have shown significant differences between both groups in x-axis (P =.024) and y-axis (P =.01) but not in z-axis (P =.776). CONCLUSIONS: Model surgery performed with the aid of a robot arm is significantly more accurate in anteroposterior and vertical planes than is manual model surgery. Robot arm has an important role to play in orthognathic surgery planning and in determining the biometrics of orthognathic surgical change at the model surgery stage.

Cephalometry↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Evolutionary robots with on-line self-organization and behavioral fitness.

We address two issues in Evolutionary Robotics, namely the genetic encoding and the performance criterion, also known as the fitness function. For the first aspect, we suggest to encode mechanisms for parameter self-organization, instead of the parameters themselves as in conventional approaches. We argue that the suggested encoding generates systems that can solve more complex tasks and are more robust to unpredictable sources of change. We support our arguments with a set of experiments on evolutionary neural controllers for physical robots and compare them to conventional encoding. In addition, we show that when also the genetic encoding is left free to evolve, artificial evolution will select to exploit mechanisms of self-organization. For the second aspect, we shall discuss the role of the performance criterion, als known as fitness function, and suggest Fitness Space as a framework to conceive fitness functions in Evolutionary Robotics. Fitness Space can be used as a guide to design fitness functions as well as to compare different experiments in Evolutionary Robotics.

Evolution, Molecular↗