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PubMed2006

Use of point-of-sale data to track usage patterns of residential pesticides: methodology development.

BACKGROUND: Residential-use pesticides have been shown to be a major source of pesticide exposure to people in the United States. However, little is understood about the exposures to household pesticides and the resultant health effects. One reason that little is known about home-use pesticide exposure is the lack of comprehensive data on exposures to pesticides in the home. One method to help ascertain the amount of pesticides present in the home is use of point-of-sale data collected from marketing companies that track product sales to obtain the volume of pesticides sold for home-use. This provides a measure of volume of home-use pesticide. METHODS: We have constructed a searchable database containing sales data for home-use permethrin-containing pesticides sold by retail stores in the United States from January 1997 through December 2002 in an attempt to develop a tracking method for pesticide. This pilot project was conducted to determine if point-of-sale data would be effective in helping track the purchase of home-use permethrin containing pesticides and if it would stand as a good model for tracking sales of other home-use pesticides. RESULTS: There are several limitations associated with this tracking method, including the availability of sales data, market coverage, and geographic resolution. As a result, a fraction of sales data potentially available for reporting is represented in this database. However, the database is sensitive to the number and type of merchants reporting permethrin sales. Further, analysis of the sale of individual products included in the database indicates that year to year variability has a greater impact on reported permethrin sales than the amount sold by each type of merchant. CONCLUSION: We conclude that, while nothing could completely replace a detailed exposure assessment to estimate exposures to home-use pesticides, a point-of-sale database is a useful tool in tracking the purchase of these types of pesticides to 1) detect anomalous trends in regional and seasonal pesticide sales warranting further investigation into the potential causes of the trends; 2) determine the most commonly purchased application types; and 3) compare relative trends in sales between indoor and outdoor use products as well as compare trends in sales between different active ingredients.

Commerce↗

PubMed2000

Assessment of insecticide resistance after the outbreak of diamondback moth (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae) in California in 1997.

During an outbreak of the diamondback moth, Plutella xylostella (L.), in California in 1997, nine populations were collected from the major broccoli areas throughout the state. Populations were assayed for their susceptibility to currently used materials (Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki, permethrin, and methomyl) and to newer materials that had not yet been commercially used in California (spinosad, emamectin benzoate, and chlorfenapyr). For the currently used insecticides, elevated levels of resistance were seen only with permethrin and seven of the nine populations had tolerance ratios (TR) of > 100. With the newer chemistries, TR values were all < 15. To compare potential cross-tolerance, TR values of the currently used insecticides were compared with TR values of the newer insecticides. There were significant relationships found between: methomyl and emamectin benzoate, methomyl and spinosad, and permethrin and spinosad. Further biochemical studies are needed to confirm the actual mechanisms that lead to these relationships and field tests are needed to determine what impact, if any, such TR levels would have on control in the field. These data indicate that resistance to at least one of the commonly used insecticides (permethrin) may have played a role in the outbreak during 1997. However, other factors may have been at least equally important. The winter of 1996-1997 was warmer than normal, and during the period from February through August of 1997 the amount of rainfall was < 50% of normal. Hot and dry conditions are known to be conducive to outbreaks of P. xylostella. These data add to an overall knowledge about the geographic variation of resistance in P. xylostella populations within the United States. They also serve as a baseline for monitoring changes in susceptibility to these newer insecticides and can also help explain the occurrence of outbreaks caused by factors other than insecticide resistance.

Animals↗

PubMed2001

Toxicity of pyrethroids and effect of synergists to larval and adult Helicoverpa zea, Spodoptera frugiperda, and Agrotis ipsilon (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae).

Based on 48 h LD50 estimates from topical bioassays, cypermethrin was more toxic than permethrin to Helicoverpa zea (Boddie) larvae and adults; however, the two pyrethroids did not differ significantly in their relative toxicities to Spodoptera frugiperda (J. E. Smith) and Agrotis ipsilon (Hufnagle). Larvae of each species generally were more susceptible to cypermethrin and permethrin than respective adults. The only exception to this generalization occurred with H. zea where slight overlap of the 95% confidence intervals with larvae and adult males was observed with cypermethrin. Respective males and females of the three species usually did not differ significantly in their susceptibility to either cypermethrin or to permethrin; however, with A. ipsilon, females were more susceptible to permethrin than to cypermethrin. Several instances of greater than additive toxicity were noted when insects were treated with piperonyl butoxide, S,S,S-tri-n-butyl phosphorotrithioate (DEF), or amitraz 30 min before cypermethrin. DEF exhibited the broadest spectrum of synergistic activity.

Animals↗

PubMed2001

Insecticide susceptibility in Coptotermes formosanus and Reticulitermes virginicus (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae).

Lethal time to mortality responses were established for eight insecticides against workers and soldiers of the Formosan subterranean termite, Coptotermes formosanus Shiraki, and workers of Reticulitermes virginicus (Banks). There were significant differences in the tolerance ratios between workers of C. formosanus colonies to all toxicants tested except fipronil. One colony was 16 times more tolerant than another to deltamethin. C. formosanus soldiers had significant differences in tolerance ratios among colonies exposed to all toxicants except chlorpyrifos. Methoxychlor, permethrin, deltamethrin, and fipronil did not kill soldiers from two, one, one, and three colonies, respectively, within 8 h. Seventy-five percent of R. virginicus colonies were significantly less susceptible than the most susceptible colony to chlordane, methoxychlor, chlorpyrifos, cypermethrin, and fipronil, with 50% of the colonies less susceptible to permethrin and bendiocarb. In 50% of C. formosanus colonies the worker lethal time curves displayed substantial flattening in response to permethrin, and deltamethrin. Lethal time curses for C. formosanus soldiers exposed to chlordane, chlorpyrifos, permethrin, cypermethrin, deltamethrin, and bendiocarb showed substantial flattening. R. virginicus workers demonstrated substantial curve flattening when exposed to chlordane, methoxychlor, chlorpyrifos, deltamethrin, and fipronil. These findings indicate substantial intercolony and intra-colony differences in susceptibility to insecticides.

Animals↗

PubMed2002

Comparison of Bacillus thuringiensis corn hybrids and insecticide-treated isolines exposed to bivoltine European corn borer (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) in South Dakota.

The performances of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) corn hybrids and permethrin-treated isolines were evaluated in South Dakota from 1997 to 1999. The corn hybrids were exposed to natural seasonal fluctuations of a bivoltine ecotype European corn borer population. Larval injury parameters, grain yields, and gross incomes were quantified during the 3-yr study. The use of either Bt hybrids or whorl-applied permethrin granules resulted in significant yield advantages in only 1 out of 3 yr of performance testing. Under high corn borer pressure in 1997, the performances of the Bt corn hybrids and permethrin-treated isolines were similar, and significantly better than the untreated isolines. However, injury-free corn did not necessarily translate into higher yields in some of the hybrid groups. Grain moisture at harvest, which can result in moisture penalty or dockage, was significantly higher in some Bt corn hybrids. Neither the Bt hybrids nor the permethrin-treated isolines produced significant advantages in yields in 1998 and 1999 when infestations of first-generation corn borer were almost nonexistent and infestations of second-generation European corn borers were moderate.

Animals↗

PubMed1988

Eradication of head lice with a single treatment.

Single application of Nix (permethrin 1% creme rinse) and Rid were compared as treatments for Pediculosis capitis in 435 patients, the majority of whom were children. Seven days after the treatment, 98 per cent of the permethrin-treated and 85 per cent of the Rid-treated patients were free of lice. At 14 days, prior to nit removal, 96 per cent of the permethrin-treated and 62 per cent of the Rid-treated patients were still lice free. Seventeen (7 per cent) permethrin-treated and 32 (16 per cent) Rid-treated patients were reported to have adverse experiences.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1999

Insecticide cross-resistance spectra and underlying resistance mechanisms of Sri Lankan anopheline vectors of malaria.

Present status of insecticide resistance was investigated in two major vectors of malaria; An. culicifacies and An. subpictus, collected from a high malaria transmission area in Sri Lanka during 1996/1998. Adult and larval bioassays were carried out to obtain log-probit mortality lines for malathion, propoxur, permethrin and chlorpyrifos. Respective LD50 values were 4.45%, 0.002%, 0.16% and 0.001% for An. culicifacies and 0.66%, 0.004%, 0.004% and 0.04% for An. subpictus. Adults were also tested for WHO standard discriminating dosages of malathion, propoxur, permethrin, DDT, cypermethrin, deltamethlin and lambda cyhalothrin. Both populations were highly resistant to DDT. An. culicifacies was more resistant to malathion and An. subpictus was more resistant to chlorpyrifos. About 25% of both populations were resistant to permethrin. An. culicifacies was susceptible to propoxur, deltamethrin and lambda cyhalothrin and An. subpictus to cypermethrin and lambda cyhalothrin. Adult mosquitos were individually tested for their insecticide detoxifying enzyme activities and altered target-site, acetylcholinesterase. High general esterase activity indicated the presence of amplified esterase genes in both populations. Native gel electrophoresis resolved one elevated esterase isoenzyme, with high affinity to organophosphates, from each species. Malathion carboxylesterase mechanism was present in both populations. Higher glutathione-S-transferase activity was marked in An. subpictus. Synergistic studies showed the possible involvement of monooxygenases in resistance in both species. Acetylcholinesterase activity of approximately 80% of both populations was not inhibited by a standard dosage of propoxur. Low resistance to carbamates shows that the impact of agricultural pesticides is not significant in the development of resistance especially in An. culicifaies. Pyrethroids, other than permethrin, can be successfully used in vector control programs. Carbamates will be an alternative.

Acetylcholinesterase↗

PubMed2001

[Comparative study of the effect of synthetic pyrethroids on the induction of genetic changes in mice somatic and sex cells depending on the exposure route].

Synthetic pyrethroid insecticides are widely used in the protection of fruits and vegetables as well as in the public hygiene due to their strong neurotoxic activity against insects. The induction of genetic changes in somatic and sex cells in male mice after different routes of exposure to permethrin and fenvalerate was studied. The male 8-10 weeks old mice were intraperitoneally exposed to 20 and 40 mg/kg bw of fenvalerate and 125 and 250 mg/kg bw of permethrin. Another groups of mice were exposed per os to fenvalerate and permethrin in the doses of 50, 100 and 200, 400 mg/kg bw respectively. For the sperm anomalies testing the exposure was repeated for five consecutive days followed by the 35 days waiting period after which the gonads were removed and spermatozoa prepared from the epididymis. The changed spermatozoa were counted in the smears after staining in the 0.5% eosin Y solution and the results compared with the number of normal cells. For the testing of the effect of pyrethroids on the micronuclei frequency in the bone marrow cells the tested substances were administered twice in 24 hours intervals and the bone marrow was sampled after 6 and 24 hours from the femur bone. The polychromatic erythrocytes and the presence of micronuclei were evaluated in the bone marrow smears. The results showed the difference in the action of the pyrethroids on the genetic material of the tested cells and the effect of the route of exposure. Permethrin induced the lesions in the sex cells regardless the route of exposure, however a substantial increase in the micronuclei frequency in the bone marrow was observed after oral exposure only. No signs of cytotoxicity accompanied the sperm anomalies and micronuclei induction. Fenvalerate induced changes in sperm cells after intraperitoneal exposure only. No increase in the micronuclei frequency in the polychromatic erythrocytes of the bone marrow was observed after per os or intraperitoneal exposure. The intraperitoneal exposure to this pyrethroid resulted in cytotoxicity in both bone marrow and sex cells.

Administration, Oral↗

PubMed1999

[Effects of pyrethroids on the glutamate uptake system in synaptic vesicle of rats].

In order to study the effects of cypermethrin and permethrin insecticides on the glutamate uptake of rat brain, brain synaptic vesicles and cypermethrin or permethrin were incubated with 3H-glutamate (37 KBq, 1 mumol/L). The radio activity was detected by a liquid scintillation counter. The results showed that cypermethrin and permethrin in the concentration of 10(-9)-10(-4) mol/L could inhibit the high affinity uptake of glutamate in the synaptosomes of cerebral cortex, hippocampus and striatum in a dose-response manner. Cypermethrin was more powerful than permethrin at the same dose. It was concluded that glutamate uptake inhibition might play a vital role in the neurotoxicity induced by pyrethroid insecticides.

Animals↗

PubMed1992

Insecticide induced disruptions in functioning of developing brain of Rana cyanophlictis.

Synthetic pyrethroid insecticide permethrin significantly decreased the levels of regulatory proteins (S-100 and calmodulin) in the developing CNS of tadpoles of R. cyanophlictis. Remarkable inhibition of enzymes acetylcholinesterase and choline acetylase and significant accumulation of neurotransmitter acetylcholine were observed in permethrin treated animals. Permethrin exposure significantly decreased the activity of phosphodiesterase. The results support molecular disruptions occurring due to permethrin induced toxicity. This in turn may bring about neuronal inefficiency in the treated tadpoles.

Animals↗

PubMed1992

Efficacy of various ground-applied pyrethroids against adult Anopheles quadrimaculatus in the rice growing region of Arkansas.

Ground-applied ULV, cold aerosol, insecticide sprays were evaluated against caged adult female Anopheles quadrimaculatus. Treatments included 2 rates each of resmethrin, permethrin and a water-based permethrin formulation. Mortality at 24 h posttreatment was not significantly (P greater than or equal to 0.05) different between the resmethrin and water-based permethrin treatments. Both rates of permethrin were significantly (P less than 0.05) less effective than the other treatments.

Animals↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Determination of total free and glucose-conjugated 3-phenoxybenzyl alcohol residues in foods by gas chromatography with electron capture detection.

A method was developed to determine the combined amounts of residual, free 3-phenoxybenzyl alcohol (permethrin alcohol) and its acetone-extractable glucosides in representative fruits and vegetables after application of pyrethyroid insecticides such as permethrin or cypermethrin. 3-Phenoxybenzyl glucoside was synthesized and used to spike food samples. Conditions were developed for extraction, enzymatic hydrolysis, derivatization with heptafluorobutyric anhydride, and cleanup prior to detection and quantitation by gas chromatography with electron capture detection. Limits of detection in various foods were < or = 0.01 ppm. In addition, 2 sets of field trial samples that were sprayed with permethrin and collected at intervals were also analyzed. In general, the amounts of total permethrin alcohol in foods were small.

Aerosols↗

PubMed1996

Some observations on the biting behavior of Anopheles gambiae s.s., Anopheles arabiensis, and Anopheles funestus and their implications for malaria control.

Studies were carried out in three villages in western Kenya on the biting behavior of Anopheles gambiae s.s., Anopheles arabiensis, and Anopheles funestus. Blood feeding behavior and departure from houses were studied under the impact of permethrin-impregnated eaves-sisal curtains. Only 2-13% of the female vector population was collected biting before 2200 hr. Over 90% of the villagers went to bed by 2100 hr. An. funestus was 6.6-8.2 times more likely to bite people indoors than outdoors, while An. gambiae s.l. females were only 2 times as likely. Under the influence of permethrin-impregnated sisal curtains placed under the eaves of village houses, there was a marked egress of blood-fed An. funestus and An. gambiae s.s. Permethrin seems to have induced exophily of half-gravid female An. gambiae s.s. While An. gambiae s.s. remained highly anthropophagic under the impact of permethrin, An. funestus shifted to feeding more on cattle. An arabiensis were largely zoophilic. Our results underline the difficulties of controlling An. gambiae s.s., the principal African malaria vector. New strategies must be found to control this vector.

Animals↗

PubMed1995

Induction of micronuclei by five pyrethroid insecticides in whole-blood and isolated human lymphocyte cultures.

Five pyrethroid insecticides: cypermethrin, deltamethrin, fenpropathrin, fenvalerate and permethrin, were tested for their ability to induce micronuclei in both whole-blood (WB; three donors) and isolated human lymphocyte (IL, 2 donors) cultures, by using the cytokinesis-block method with 6 micrograms/ml cytochalasin B (Cyt-B). Fenvalerate and permethrin were tested with two different concentrations of Cyt-B (3 and 6 micrograms/ml). At the concentration ranges tested, all the five pyrethroids induced clear dose dependent cytotoxic effects, fenpropathrin being the most toxic. Nuclear division index (NDI) and the newly introduced index of cytotoxicity, the cytokinesis block proliferation index (CBPI), reflected the dose dependency more accurately than the percentage of binucleated cells did. CBPI is similar to NDI except that it estimates the average number of cell divisions that the cell population has gone through, and, therefore, classifies both trinucleate and tetranucleate cells into the same category. Cypermethrin and fenpropathrin slightly increased the number of MN and micronucleated cells in WB lymphocyte cultures from two out of the three donors. Deltamethrin produced a positive response only in WB cultures of one donor and in IL cultures of another donor. Permethrin gave mostly negative results, although it increased the MN frequency in WB cultures of one donor when 6 micrograms/ml Cyt-B was used. Fenvalerate did not significantly induce MN. With certain reservations to the purity and isomer composition of each pesticide, the existing information appears to support the idea that pyrethroid insecticides have a weak (cypermethrin, deltamethrin and fenpropathrin) or nule (fenvalerate and permethrin) genotoxic activity in vitro.

Adult↗

PubMed1990

Organochlorine residues in roof timbers and possible implications for bats.

In Britain, many species of bat regularly use buildings as roosts. DDT, DDE, dieldrin (HEOD) and gamma-HCH (lindane) have been detected in carcasses of bats that had died a short while before they were found. Roof timbers may be a source of this contamination. This study reports concentrations of organochlorines in (i) roof timbers known to have been treated in the past (spot samples; n - 17) and (ii) timbers before and after treatment with commercial permethrin formulations (pre-treatment and post-treatment samples, n = 11). Gamma-HCH was detected in 13 spot samples and HEOD in 6. Where present, mean (+/-1 SE) concentrations in wood were 15.6+/-6.5 microg g-1 WW (n = 13) and 25.0+/-11.8 microg g-1 WW (n = 6), respectively. DDT was not detected in any spot samples, but permethrin was detected in four (1264+/-567 microg g(-1) WW) samples, but not in the corresponding pre-treatment samples; in one other pair of samples, concentrations of gamma-HCH increased from 74 to 2468 microg g-1 WW after treatment. Both DDT and HEOD occurred in low (<2 microg g-1 WW) concentrations in five post-treatment samples and in one and zero pre-treatment samples, respectively; the highest dieldrin concentration measured was 30.9 microg g-1 WW. Permethrin was not detectable in any pre-treatment samples but was present in ten post-treatment samples in concentrations ranging from 93 to 2995 microg g-1 WW. The spot results suggest that low concentrations of organochlorines can persist in treated roof timbers for at least 13 years post-treatment. Occasionally, these pesticide residues in timber may be of sufficient magnitude to result in bats absorbing a substantial proportion of a lethal dose. Results also suggest that there is organochlorine contamination of permethrin formulations and that the solvents used in new applications of pesticide may re-mobilise organochlorines already present in wood.

Journal Article↗

PubMed2002

Estrogenicity of organophosphorus and pyrethroid pesticides.

Although organophosphorus and pyrethroid pesticides are considered environmental contaminants, their estrogenic potentials are still ubiquitous and unclear. The present study was undertaken to evaluate the estrogenic activities of nine pesticides (phoxim, malathion, monocrotophos, dimethoate, opunal, fenvalerate, cypermethrin, permethrin, and deltamethrin) using three in vitro methods [E-Screen assay, estrogen receptor (ER) competitive binding assay, and pS2 expression assay]. All the pyrethroid pesticides tested induced MCF-7 cell proliferation significantly, while organophosphorus pesticides did not. The estrogenic potency were ranked as permethrin > fenvalerate > cypermethrin > deltamethrin. The proliferation induced by cypermethrin, permethrin, and deltamethrin was blocked by ICI 182.780, while fenvalerate only partly inhibited it. In addition, pyrethroid pesticides inhibited the binding of [3H]estradiol to ER, while the organophosphorus failed to do so. Fenvalerate, permethrin, and cypermethrin induced pS2 mRNA expression with varying potency, while there were no significant effects in deltamethrin-treated groups. Our findings provide evidence to support the idea that pyrethroid pesticides tested produce an ER-specific, agonist response. Fenvalerate induced MCF-7 cell proliferation by a mechanism not involving ER-mediated pathway. Organophosphorus pesticides tested showed no estrogenic potential. Compared with the pS2 expression assay, E-Screen was a more sensitive and useful assay for screening of the xenoestrogenic chemicals.

Animals↗

PubMed1995

Airborne insecticide residues after broadcast application for cat flea (Siphonaptera: Pulicidae) control.

Airborne residues of chlorpyrifos, propetamphos, and permethrin were measured up to 50 h after broadcast treatment for cat flea, Ctenocephalides felis (Bouché), control in residences. Type of insecticide, time after treatment, ventilation regime, and height above floor significantly affected airborne residues. Before spraying chlorpyrifos, residues were low or undetected. In nonventilated residences, chlorpyrifos residues peaked 0-6 h after treatment at 38 ng/liter, then slowly declined through 50 h. In ventilated residences, chlorpyrifos residues peaked from 2 to 10 h after treatment at 25-27 ng/liter, then declined to 8 ng/liter at 50 h. Propetamphos and permethrin residues in nonventilated residences peaked at 0-2 h at 32-40 and 40-44 ng/liter, respectively. Propetamphos peaked at 12-17 ng/liter at 0-2 h in ventilated residences. Permethrin was not detected in any of the samples in ventilated residences. Maximum airborne concentrations were 74 ng/liter chlorpyrifos, 49 ng/liter propetamphos, and 54 ng/liter permethrin.

Air↗

PubMed1994

Insecticide susceptibility in mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) from French Polynesia.

Susceptibility to six organophosphate (OP), two pyrethroid (PY), and one carbamate (C) insecticides was investigated in Culex pipiens quinquefasciatus Say, Aedes aegypti (L.), and Aedes polynesiensis Marks larvae from the island of Tahiti. Cx. p. quinquefasciatus and Ae. aegypti were compared with susceptible reference strains treated simultaneously. A low, but significant, resistance to bromophos (4.6x), chlorpyrifos (5.7x), fenthion (2.4x), fenitrothion (5.0x), temephos (4.3x) and permethrin (2.1x) was found in Cx. p. quinquefasciatus, and to malathion (1.5x), temephos (2.3x), permethrin (1.8x) and propoxur (1.7x) in Ae. aegypti. Cx. p. quinquefasciatus was shown to possess over-produced esterases A2 and B2, which are known to be involved in resistance to OPs in other countries. Ae. polynesiensis was less resistant than the Ae. aegypti reference strain to all insecticides except temephos (1.8x) and permethrin (6.7x). To determine whether Ae. polynesiensis had developed resistance to these insecticides in Tahiti, a geographical survey covering 12 islands of the Society, Tuamotu, Tubuai, Marquesas, and Gambier archipelagoes was undertaken with three insecticides (temephos, deltamethrin, and permethrin). Two- to threefold variations in LC50S were observed among collections. Results are discussed in relationship to the level of insecticide exposure on the different islands.

Animals↗