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PubMed2003

Lessons from the history of the human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome epidemic among Spanish drug injectors.

In Spain, approximately 10 years passed between the time when human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) harm-reduction programs should have been developed with sufficient coverage to have an optimum impact on public health (before the HIV/AIDS epidemic's explosion in 1984) and the date of their actual implementation. This delay yielded an enormous cost for the country. The introduction of the virus in drug injector networks during a period of widespread diffusion of heroin injection and the lack of political awareness of the growing problem were 2 important factors that contributed to the important diffusion of the HIV infection among Spanish injection drug users. Lessons can be learned that may be of great interest in countries or territories facing similar challenges now and in the future.

Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome↗

PubMed2002

Factors affecting cognitive functioning in a sample of human immunodeficiency virus-positive injection drug users.

Injection drug users represent a major vector of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection in the nation's inner cities, and are an important population for harm reduction treatment interventions to target. However, there has been relatively little research examining the specific contribution of the multiple factors contributing to cognitive functioning among injection drug users that may affect engagement in, and response to, addiction and HIV-related interventions. The current study examined the independent contributions to neuropsychological (NP) test performance of premorbid educational attainment, medical and psychiatric history, long- and short-term drug use, assessed by laboratory, observation, and self-report measures, and HIV disease, assessed by plasma HIV-1 RNA viral load and CD4+ count, in a sample of 90 HIV-positive injection drug users dually addicted to heroin and cocaine. Fully 88% of the sample showed evidence of impairment (>1 standard deviation below the population mean) on an NP test battery selected to assess processes associated with successful engagement in the treatment of substance abuse and HIV, such as learning and memory of verbal information, capacity to solve new problems and deal with more than one stimulus at a time, visual-motor coordination, and visual tracking and cognitive flexibility. In addition to drug use, independent predictors of NP test performance were HIV viral load, educational attainment, and premorbid medical and psychiatric problems. Findings underscore the multiplicity of factors that contribute to cognitive impairment in HIV-positive drug-abusing individuals in addition to drug use. Clinical implications are discussed.

Adult↗

PubMed2004

Hepatitis C virus coinfection in a cohort of HIV-infected individuals from Santos, Brazil: seroprevalence and associated factors.

Although HIV/hepatitis C virus (HCV) coinfection has been recognized worldwide in individuals exposed to blood-borne and sexually transmitted diseases (STD), limited data are available on the epidemiology of this coinfection in Brazil. A cross-sectional study was carried out to estimate the prevalence of HCV seropositivity in a cohort of people living with HIV/AIDS in Santos, Brazil, and to investigate potential risk factors for HCV infection. Anti-HCV antibodies were sought by using two immunoenzymatic assays. Overall HCV seroprevalence was 36.2% (95% confidence interval [CI] 31.9-40.4%). However, it was significantly higher (84.8%, 95% CI 78.2-91.3%) among intravenous drug users (IDU) as compared to non-IDU (20.9%, 95% CI 16.8-25.1%) (p < 0.001). Multiple logistic regression analysis revealed that HCV seropositivity among IDU was independently associated with needle sharing (adjusted odds ratio [adjOR] = 4.28, p = 0.07) and with serologic evidence of exposure to other bloodborne agents: HBV (adjOR = 4.39, p = 0.01) and HTLV-I/II (adjOR = 6.43, p = 0.02). In contrast, no association with lifetime number of sexual partners, history of STD, or of sex with commercial sex workers (CSW) could be demonstrated. Among non-IDU, HCV seropositivity was independently associated with sexual partnership with IDU (adjOR = 2.15, p = 0.08) and with HBV seropositivity (adjOR = 1.71, p = 0.05), but not with engaging in oral or anal receptive intercourse or having sex with CSW. Results indicate that exposure to blood and sexual partnership with IDU constitute the main risk factors for HCV acquisition among HIV-positive patients in Santos, Brazil. Prevention of HCV spread in this population should thus include harm reduction measures and information on safer sex practices for both IDU and their sexual partners.

Adult↗

PubMed2006

Ryan White Title I Survey: services for HIV-positive substance users.

People living with HIV/AIDS who are also substance users need primary health care, substance abuse treatment, and support services. They also require care delivery strategies that are comprehensive and innovative. Forty-three of 51 Ryan White Care Act Title I grantees funding 197 substance abuse treatment agencies in the United States participated in this study. Grantees were surveyed to determine (1) use of Title I funding to provide services for HIV-positive substance users, (2) the types of substance abuse services provided, (3) strengths and weaknesses of different metropolitan substance abuse service delivery systems, (4) sources of information used to assess the needs of substance users, (5) gaps in knowledge about substance users and their service needs, and (6) examples of successful strategies within the eligible metropolitan areas. The results of the study demonstrate that most grantees use Title I funds to support some form of substance abuse treatment for people with HIV; however, many do not use the funds to address the barriers to care that they identified. Lack of provider knowledge, expertise, and awareness, were cited as important barriers to care by a majority of the grantees. The availability of harm reduction approaches to care is an area in which there is wide variation. Several Title I programs have supported innovative programs for HIV positive substance users that may be used elsewhere as program models. It is important to find ways to incorporate these issues into the needs assessment and service prioritization process.

Adult↗

PubMed2006

Establishing rates of binge drinking in the UK: anomalies in the data.

AIMS: Several studies funded by the UK government have been influential in understanding rates of 'binge drinking' in the UK. This analysis aims to establish consistency between results and clarify UK rates of binge drinking. METHOD: The relevant sections of these surveys were compared: the Scottish Health Survey (SHS) 1998, the General Household Survey (GHS) 2002, and the Health Survey for England (HSE) 2003. In addition the methodology used by the Health Protection Agency in the Adult Drinking Patterns in Northern Ireland (2003) was compared with the approach used by the SHS, GHS, and HSE. RESULTS: Marked differences were observed between the results of the GHS 2002 and both the SHS 1998 and the HSE 2002 despite each using a similar methodology, with the HSE 2003 reporting a rate of 'binge drinking' in young males of 57%, and the GHS reporting a rate of 35%. This difference may be largely attributed to variations in the criteria in binge drinking in each study. These differences in interpretation do not appear to have been acknowledged. Indeed several key documents on alcohol harm reduction made inaccurate citations of previous surveys. CONCLUSION: The media rhetoric on escalating rates of binge drinking in the UK should be regarded with caution until trends are based on standardized recording and reporting.

Adult↗

PubMed2002

Human urinary carcinogen metabolites: biomarkers for investigating tobacco and cancer.

Measurement of human urinary carcinogen metabolites is a practical approach for obtaining important information about tobacco and cancer. This review presents currently available methods and evaluates their utility. Carcinogens and their metabolites and related compounds that have been quantified in the urine of smokers or non-smokers exposed to environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) include trans,trans-muconic acid (tt-MA) and S-phenylmercapturic acid (metabolites of benzene), 1- and 2-naphthol, hydroxyphenanthrenes and phenanthrene dihydrodiols, 1-hydroxypyrene (1-HOP), metabolites of benzo[a]pyrene, aromatic amines and heterocyclic aromatic amines, N-nitrosoproline, 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanol and its glucuronides (NNAL and NNAL-Gluc), 8-oxodeoxyguanosine, thioethers, mercapturic acids, and alkyladenines. Nitrosamines and their metabolites have also been quantified in the urine of smokeless tobacco users. The utility of these assays to provide information about carcinogen dose, delineation of exposed vs. non-exposed individuals, and carcinogen metabolism in humans is discussed. NNAL and NNAL-Gluc are exceptionally useful biomarkers because they are derived from a carcinogen- 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK)- that is specific to tobacco products. The NNAL assay has high sensitivity and specificity, which are particularly important for studies on ETS exposure. Other useful assays that have been widely applied involve quantitation of 1-HOP and tt-MA. Urinary carcinogen metabolite biomarkers will be critical components of future studies on tobacco and human cancer, particularly with respect to new tobacco products and strategies for harm reduction, the role of metabolic polymorphisms in cancer, and further evaluation of human carcinogen exposure from ETS.

Biomarkers↗

PubMed2001

Surveillance of HIV infection and related risk behaviour in European prisons. A multicentre pilot study.

BACKGROUND: In order to demonstrate the feasibility of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection and related risk behaviour surveillance in European prisons, a multicentre pilot study was undertaken. METHODS: A cross-sectional survey was carried out in six European prisons (France, Germany, Italy, The Netherlands, Scotland and Sweden). Inmates were invited to complete a self-administered and anonymous questionnaire and to give a saliva sample in order to test for HIV antibodies. RESULTS: Eight hundred and forty-seven out of 1,124 inmates participated in the survey (response rate 75%). Saliva from 817 inmates (73%) was collected and processed for HIV antibodies. Twenty-seven per cent reported that they had ever injected drugs and 49% of these reported they had injected whilst in prison. Eighteen per cent of inmates reported that they had been tattooed whilst in prison, which was found to be higher among injecting drug users (IDUs). One and sixteen per cent reported that they had ever had homosexual and heterosexual intercourse in prison respectively. The HIV prevalence among IDUs was 4% (versus 1% among non-IDUs) (p = 0.02). The proportions of inmates previously tested for hepatitis C and vaccinated against hepatitis B were 24 and 16% respectively. CONCLUSION: This survey demonstrates the feasibility of cross-sectional surveys in European prison inmates and highlights the importance of surveillance of HIV prevalence and related risk behaviour among inmates. The continuing high HIV prevalence and potential for HIV spread in prisons should encourage decision makers in implementing or enhancing harm reduction and education programmes and substance abuse treatment services in prison.

Cross-Sectional Studies↗

PubMed2002

HIV prevention in prisons. Do international guidelines matter?

BACKGROUND: In spite of the availability of international guidelines, HIV prevention and management of care in prison is still unsatisfactory in many countries. Factors affecting the quality of HIV prevention policies in prison have not yet been elucidated. The present study had two aims: i) to assess national HIV prevention policies in prison in a selected group of countries; and ii) to determine which factors influenced such policies at the country level. METHODS: HIV prevention policies in prison were reviewed comparatively in Moldova, Hungary, Nizhnii Novgorod region of the Russian Federation, Switzerland and Italy. The review of HIV prevention policies in prison was conducted through interviews with government officials, non-governmental organizations, professionals involved in this field, and visits to selected prisons. Information on the health of prisoners, including tuberculosis, sexually transmitted diseases, and other infectious diseases has also been collected. RESULTS: The results indicated that all countries had adopted a policy, irrespective of the burden of HIV infection in the prison system. The content of the policy mirrored the philosophy and strategies of HIV prevention and care in the community. The 1993 WHO Guidelines were fully implemented only in one country out of four (Switzerland), and partially in two (Italy and Hungary). CONCLUSIONS: A greater effort aimed at dissemination of information, provision of technical know-how and material resources could be the answer to at least part of the problems identified. In addition, greater national and international efforts are needed to stimulate the debate and build consensus on harm reduction activities in prison.

Guidelines as Topic↗

PubMed2005

Youth gambling problems: a public health perspective.

Problem gambling has recently emerged as a significant public health issue. While most efforts target adult pathological gamblers, there is growing concern that adolescents and young adults represent the highest risk group for gambling problems. Prevailing public health initiatives addressing youth problem gambling are only beginning to be examined. Drawing upon the Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion as a guiding framework, a prevention model and framework for action are presented to better understand and address problem gambling from a population-based perspective. This framework applies denormalization, protection, prevention, and harm-reduction principles to youth gambling problems and describes primary, secondary and tertiary prevention objectives. A foundation for the development, implementation and evaluation of comprehensive, multi-level health promotion and prevention strategies for youth problem gambling is provided.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2004

Alcohol use and HIV risk behaviors among rural adolescents in Khanh Hoa Province Viet Nam.

Research suggests that youth are consuming more alcohol and at younger ages than in the past. Data also indicate that alcohol consumption is associated with participation in other risk behaviors including aggression and sexual behaviors. As part of a randomized control effectiveness trial for an HIV prevention program, 480 Vietnamese youth (15-20 years old) living in eight rural communes in Khanh Hoa Province were administered a paper and pencil baseline evaluation. The evaluation included items for actual and intended alcohol use, perceptions of peers' alcohol consumption, and attitudinal questions regarding alcohol. The tool included questions on engagement and intention to engage in sexual behaviors. In addition, 96 randomly selected youth participated in qualitative interviews on similar topics. Among the 480 surveyed youth, 29.2% had consumed alcohol. Among those youth, 17.6% reported intoxication in the past 6 months. While young men were significantly more likely to drink than young women (P < 0.00), those young women who did drink were as likely to report intoxication. Alcohol use was significantly associated with engagement in sexual behaviors (P < 0.00) and intention to engage in sexual behaviors (P < 0.02). The qualitative data provided information on the social contexts of drinking behaviors and more in-depth findings regarding associated risk behaviors. With limited information about alcohol consumption among Vietnamese youth, these findings suggest that there is a need for more extensive research on alcohol use and associated risk behaviors among this population, and for targeted alcohol prevention and harm-reduction programs.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2000

Women, drugs and HIV/AIDS: results of a multicentre European study.

BACKGROUND: In the light of rising human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) incidence rates amongst women in Western Europe, a multicentred, cross-sectional study was undertaken to explore the multitude of possible factors associated with HIV in a population of female injecting drug users (IDU). METHODS: Face-to-face interviews were conducted with 1198 female IDU recruited from a variety of settings in Paris, Madrid, Rome, London and Berlin. Their HIV status was determined from antibody testing of blood or saliva samples or from written confirmation of HIV test results from a physician. A hierarchical logistic regression model was used to identify direct and indirect associations between socioeconomic factors, marginalization and risk behaviour with HIV prevalence. RESULTS: The HIV prevalence in the sample of female IDU was 27.8% (range: 1.4% in London and 52.6% in Madrid). Factors independently associated with HIV prevalence in the regression analysis included: age >25 years (OR = 2.0-2.9), left full-time education before age 14 (OR = 2.4), no fixed address (OR = 2.2), previous imprisonment (OR = 1.4), commercial sex (OR = 1.3), having a regular HIV positive sexual partner (OR = 6.6), ever shared needles (OR = 1.5) and any sexually transmitted disease (STD) infection in the last year (OR = 1.7). CONCLUSIONS: The sexual behaviour and partners of female IDU in Western Europe are as important a component in explaining the HIV epidemic in this population as other risk factors, including high-risk drug taking behaviour. Homeless IDU women may be an important residual risk group warranting future preventive interventions and women with a history of STD should be a particular target for health education. Differences in HIV prevalence across cities are very large and may be related to differences in harm reduction policies.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2001

Successful linkage of medical care and community services for HIV-positive offenders being released from prison.

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection is more prevalent among the incarcerated than the general population. For many offenders, incarceration is the only time that they may access primary care. Project Bridge is a federally funded demonstration project that provides intensive case management for HIV-positive ex-offenders being released from the Rhode Island state prison to the community. The program is based on collaboration between colocated medical and social work staff. The primary goal of the program is to increase continuity of medical care through social stabilization; it follows a harm reduction philosophy in addressing substance use. Program participants are provided with assistance in accessing a variety of medical and social services. The treatment plan may include the following: mental illness triage and referral, substance abuse assessment and treatment, appointments for HIV and other medical conditions, and referral for assistance to community programs that address basic survival needs. In the first 3 years of this program, 97 offenders were enrolled. Injection drug use was reported by 80% of those enrolled. There were 90% followed for 18 months, 7% moved out of state or died, and 3% were lost to follow-up. Reincarceration happened to 48% at least once. Of those expressing a need, 75% were linked with specialty medical care in the community, and 100% received HIV-related medical services. Of those expressing a need for substance abuse treatment, 67% were successful in keeping appointments for substance abuse treatment within the community. Project Bridge has demonstrated that it is possible to maintain HIV-positive ex-offenders in medical care through the provision of ongoing case management services following prison release. Ex-offenders will access HIV-related health care after release when given adequate support.

Adult↗

PubMed2003

An external evaluation of a peer-run "unsanctioned" syringe exchange program.

In Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, difficulty accessing syringes at night has been shown to be strongly associated with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) risk behavior among the city's injection drug users (IDUs). On September 1, 2001, the Vancouver Area Network of Drug Users (VANDU) initiated an unsanctioned all-night needle-exchange program on a street corner in the heart of the neighborhood where many of the city's IDUs are concentrated. An external evaluation of the population reached by the VANDU exchange was performed through the Vancouver Injection Drug User's Study, a prospective cohort study of IDUs begun in 1996. Persons accessing syringes through the exchange were compared to those active injectors who acquired their syringes from other sources, including the city's fixed site exchange, which closes at 8:00 PM. Overall, 587 active IDUs were seen during the period September 2001 to June 2002; of these individuals, 165 (28.1%) reported using the VANDU exchange. In multivariate analyses, participants who used the VANDU table were more likely to frequently inject cocaine (adjusted odds ratio [AOR]=1.56; 95% confidence interval [CI]=1.00-2.44), inject in public (AOR=2.71; 95% CI=1.62-4.53), and require help injecting (OR=2.13; 95% CI=1.33-3.42). Interestingly, use of the table was also independently associated with safer syringe disposal (AOR=2.69; 95% CI=1.38-5.21). Results indicate that the unsanctioned exchange appears to have reached those IDUs at highest risk of HIV infection. Although the cross-sectional nature of the study design warrants caution, we also found that use of the nighttime exchange was strongly associated with higher rates of safe syringe disposal. The data suggest that drug user organizations can play a major role in reducing harm among their peers by reaching the highest risk drug users with harm reduction services. The findings also suggest that other forms of syringe-exchange programs should consider the benefits of offering fixed site nighttime service.

Adult↗

PubMed2005

Attitudes of Emergency Medical Service providers towards naloxone distribution programs.

Training and distributing naloxone to drug users is a promising method for reducing deaths associated with heroin overdose. Emergency Medical Service (EMS) providers have experience responding to overdose, administering naloxone, and performing clinical management of the patient. Little is known about the attitudes of EMS providers toward training drug users to use naloxone. We conducted an anonymous survey of 327 EMS providers to assess their attitudes toward a pilot naloxone program. Of 176 who completed the survey, the majority were male (79%) and Caucasian (75%). The average number of years working as an EMS provider was 7 (SD=6). Overall attitudes toward training drug users to administer naloxone were negative with 56% responding that this training would not be effective in reducing overdose deaths. Differences in attitudes did not vary by gender, level of training, or age. Providers with greater number of years working in EMS were more likely to view naloxone trainings as effective in reducing overdose death. Provider concerns included drug users' inability to properly administer the drug, program condoning and promoting drug use, and unsafe disposal of used needles. Incorporating information about substance abuse and harm reduction approaches in continuing education classes may improve the attitudes of provider toward naloxone training programs.

Adult↗

PubMed2004

Alcohol as a certified cause of death in a 'middle England' population 1979-1999: database study.

The Alcohol Harm Reduction Strategy for England, recently published, highlights current concerns about alcohol consumption in this country. We used a database to examine trends in mortality for all deaths certified as effects of alcohol from 1979-1999, including mentions as well as underlying cause, in a relatively prosperous population in southern England. Mortality, certified as direct effects of alcohol, tripled during the 21 years of study; and mortality rates based on mentions were about double those based on underlying cause. The increase in recent years in mortality based on mentions was considerably greater than that based on underlying cause. Data on age, sex and occupational social class show that people whose alcohol intake kills them are from a broad cross-section of society.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1997

Ideology and social work practice in substance abuse settings.

The profession of social work has a unique role in preventing and treating alcohol and other drug problems. In human services settings shared beliefs or ideologies of care are expected to have substantial influence over the way in which problems are perceived and the types of service technologies used. Thus, it is important that social work professionals be cognizant of what beliefs they hold and how their beliefs about substance abuse treatment and prevention may affect practice. This article discusses current ideologies of care in the substance abuse arena, including the disease/abstinence, psychosocial, ecological, and harm-reduction approaches. In addition, this article examines managers' beliefs about substance abuse programs to determine if there are differences between those who have a social work background (that is, hold at least one social work degree) and those who do not. Suggestions for social work practice and future research also are provided.

Administrative Personnel↗

PubMed2006

Syringe-exchange programs and HIV prevention: if they're effective, what's the controversy?

Injection drug users and their sexual partners and children represent an increasing proportion of Americans living with HIV or AIDS. Syringe-exchange programs (SEPs), which are based on the theory of harm reduction, are effective in preventing the transmission of HIV and other pathogens through injection drug use. Most programs also serve as gateways to other vital medical services. Yet SEPs remain controversial. This article describes the controversy, considers the evidence, and discusses the nursing implications.

Dissent and Disputes↗

PubMed1995

Anonymous HIV surveillance with risk factor elicitation at Scotland's largest prison, Barlinnie.

OBJECTIVE: To determine prevalence of HIV infection and risk behaviours among male inmates of Her Majesty's Prison (HMP) Barlinnie, Glasgow, Scotland on 8-9 September 1994. DESIGN: Cross-sectional study: voluntary, anonymous HIV surveillance (using saliva samples) of all inmates and linked self-completion risk-factor questionnaire. SUBJECTS: Of 1073 prisoners available to participate, 985 (92%) completed a risk-factor questionnaire and 982 salivettes were received for testing, of which 978 were tested for HIV antibodies (four were dry samples); 928 questionnaires passed logical checks for consistency. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: HIV prevalence on saliva testing, related risk behaviours and ratio of overall-to-disclosed HIV prevalence. Proportion of all inmates who have ever injected drugs, ever injected inside prison, started injecting inside, ever had acute hepatitis, had a recent personal HIV test (since January 1993). RESULTS: Nine saliva samples [eight injecting drug users (IDU), one recognized other risk] out of 978 were HIV-antibody-positive (three presumptively from known HIV-infected inmates). Overall HIV prevalence was estimated at 1% compared with a known prevalence of 0.4%, giving an overall-to-disclosed HIV prevalence ratio of 2.6 in HMP Barlinnie in September 1994. A higher proportion of prisoners from Glasgow (48%) than elsewhere (19%) were IDU. Year of first injection was also different by residence with 23% of Glasgow IDU having first injected after 1988 compared with 45% of IDU from elsewhere, mainly West and South Scotland. Half the IDU inmates reported having injected while incarcerated and 6% had started to inject while incarcerated. Ten per cent of all prisoners and 20% of IDU inmates had had a personal HIV test since January 1993. Logistic regression showed that there was a significant deficit of recent HIV test uptake by Glasgow residents (odds ratio, 0.5; 95% confidence interval, 0.27-0.89), that IDU were more likely to have had treatment for a sexually transmitted disease, and that IDU who had injected inside and those whose injecting career began prior to 1989 were more likely to have had acute hepatitis. CONCLUSION: A consistent harm-reduction policy is needed across prisons in the United Kingdom to avoid transmission of blood-borne viral infections. Drug injecting inside prison is common, a proportion of IDU inmates having first injected drugs while in prison, and much higher rates of hepatitis have been reported in association with injecting while incarcerated compared with that for IDU who only injected outside prison.

Adult↗