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PubMed2001

Comparison of total energy expenditure and energy intake in children aged 6-9 y.

BACKGROUND: The accurate measurement of food intake in children is important for assessing nutritional status. OBJECTIVE: We sought to both compare measurements of energy intake (EI) from diet records and of total energy expenditure (TEE) by the doubly labeled water (DLW) method and to investigate misreporting of EI. DESIGN: Forty-seven children (22 boys and 25 girls) aged 7.4 +/- 0.8 y ( +/- SD) were recruited from 25 schools in western Sydney. TEE was measured by DLW over 10 d and EI by use of 3-d food records. Misreporting was defined as [(EI - TEE)/TEE] x 100%. RESULTS: Girls had a higher (P = 0.02) percentage of body fat (28.2 +/- 7.0%) than did boys (22.9 +/- 8.0%); otherwise there were no differences among sex. Although mean (+/-SD) values for EI (7514 +/- 1260 kJ/d) and TEE (7396 +/- 1281 kJ/d) were not significantly different, there was no significant correlation between EI and TEE. EI and TEE were 9% and 11% lower, respectively, than current World Health Organization recommendations for EI. The relative bias (mean difference, EI - TEE) was low at 118 kJ/d, but the limits of agreement (bias +/- 2 SD of the difference) were wide at 118 +/- 3345 kJ/d. Although the mean percentage of misreporting was low (4 +/- 23%), the high SD indicates large intraindividual differences between EI and TEE. The most significant predictor of misreporting was dietary fat intake (r(2) = 0.45, P < 0.0001). Misreporting was not associated with sex or body composition. CONCLUSIONS: In this age group, reported EI is not representative of TEE at the individual level. However, at the population level, 3-d food records may be used for surveys of EI by 6-9-y-old children.

Anthropometry↗
PubMed1993

The effects of preloads varying in physical state and fat content on satiety and energy intake.

This study investigated the effect of the physical state and fat content of a preload on feelings of hunger and satiety and subsequent energy intake. Thirty-three normal-weight female subjects each received nine different 550-ml preloads which were served as breakfast. The preloads differed in physical state and fat level. There were three types of physical state (liquid, solid with locust bean gum, and solid with gelatin) combined with three energy levels (0.42, 1.67, and 3.35 MJ). The energy differences were due only to differences in fat content. Subjects were not allowed to eat or drink (except water) for 3.5 h after preload consumption. In this period they rated their feelings of appetite. Subjects recorded their voluntary food intake for the remainder of the study day and the day after the study day. There were no effects of the different amounts of fat or the three different physical states on energy intake during the remainder of the day or the day after. With respect to the appetite ratings, however, it appeared that the solid preloads were more satiating than the liquid preloads and the solid preloads were more satiating with fibre (locust bean gum) than without fibre (gelatin). The high-fat preloads were more satiating than the low-fat preloads.

Adult↗
PubMed1988

Counting calories: partitioning energy intake estimates from a food frequency questionnaire.

Differences in energy estimates between a food frequency questionnaire and a multi-day dietary record can be partitioned into distinct components due to differences in reported frequency of consumption and in reported serving size, and to differences in nutrient composition between the questionnaire standards and the foods reported on the records. The effect of each component on the relative validity of the questionnaire can be assessed by examining its contribution to the differences between the two methods in estimated group intake and in the relative ranking of individual respondents. This methodology was used for the 1984-1985 University of Michigan Food Frequency Study, in which the estimated energy intake from a quantitative food frequency questionnaire was compared with that from 16 days of food records collected over the course of a year from 228 white and black men and women aged 24-51 years. For all race-sex subgroups, mean energy intake estimated from the questionnaire was significantly greater than mean intake estimated from the record. Within race-sex subgroups, the correlations between estimates from the two methods were low, and agreement in classification by tertiles was poor. The differences in group mean energy intake between the methods were due to the effects of discrepancies in both serving size and frequency of consumption. However, the low correlations and poor agreement in classification for individual respondents were due principally to the effect of discrepancies in frequency. These results suggest that improving the accuracy of frequency estimation is a key element in increasing the relative validity of food frequency questionnaires used for epidemiologic research.

Adult↗
PubMed1997

Contribution of energy intake and tissue enzymatic profile to body weight gain in high-fat-fed rats.

The purpose of the current study was to examine the enzymatic profile [phosphofructokinase (PFK), beta-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase (HADH), and citrate synthase (CS)] in gastrocnemius muscle, heart, and liver in rats allowed ad libitum access to a high-fat diet (HFD, 45% of kcal from corn oil). Male Wistar rats were fed a low-fat diet (LFD, 12% of kcal from corn oil) for a 2-wk baseline period after which some continued on the LFD and others were placed on the HFD. After 1 wk on the HFD, rats were categorized as obesity-resistant (OR), -intermediate (OI), or -prone (OP) on the basis of body weight gain (OR, lower tertile; OI, middle tertile; OP, upper tertile). At 1, 2, and 5 wk, rats from each group were killed (n = 9-14 from each group/time point) after a 24-h fast. At the end of the 5-wk dietary period, weight gain was 114.8 +/- 4.3 in LFD, 125.2 +/- 3.7 in OR, 147.1 +/- 4.1 in OI, and 173.7 +/- 3.5 g in OP rats (OP > OI > OR, LFD; P < 0.001). Energy intake was highly correlated with weight gain on the HFD at each time point (r > or = 0.72, P < 0.001). After 1 wk on the HFD, significant correlations between the ratio of PFK/HADH (an indication of the relative capacity for glycolysis vs. beta-oxidation, r = 0.4, P = 0.03) and HADH/CS (an indication of the capacity for beta-oxidation relative to total oxidative capacity, r = -0.56, P = 0.001) in the gastrocnemius muscle and weight gain were observed. At week 2, significant correlations between these ratios and weight gain were observed in the gastrocnemius, liver, and heart. In contrast, these ratios were not significantly correlated with weight gain at 5 wk. These results suggest that rats most susceptible to weight gain or a HFD are characterized by a continuous increase in energy intake (explaining approximately 50% of the variance in weight gain) and an early tissue enzymatic profile that favors carbohydrate over fat use.

3-Hydroxyacyl CoA Dehydrogenases↗
PubMed1994

The effects of endurance exercise with and without a reduction of energy intake on fat-free mass and the composition of fat-free mass in obese women.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of endurance exercise on fat-free mass and nitrogen balance, with energy restriction or with energy intake to meet non-exercise needs in obese women. DESIGN: The study was a 14-week metabolic control study with a 2-week baseline period for dietary stabilization followed by a 12-week period of exercise (E) with or without energy restriction (D), E or D+E. SETTING: Metabolic research unit of the Western Human Nutrition Research Center. SUBJECTS: Ten obese women between the ages of 19 and 37 years volunteered as subjects. Body weight ranged from 19% to 41% IBW and body fat was 31-40% of body weight. INTERVENTION: Women were assigned to either an energy-restricted or energy-'adequate' group so that group means for weight, body fat, FFM, predicted VO2max and RMR were similar. Data were polled for the 2-week baseline period and in 3-week intervals during the intervention period. RESULTS: The data indicated that E had a slower rate of weight loss and a lower loss of FFM than D+E. Nitrogen balance was more positive in E than D+E. Negative N balance occurred in the D+E group when blood was drawn. There was no decrease in N excretion to compensate for blood losses. N balance for E was positive throughout the study. CONCLUSION: Changes in FFM, assessed by total body electrical conductivity, were different from the results obtained by classic nitrogen balance. This suggests that losses were due to fluid losses, which were confirmed by deuterium dilution procedures. This study demonstrated that body protein stores remained intact during periods of increased energy expenditure and dietary restriction in obese women.

Adipose Tissue↗
PubMed1996

Nonabsorbable fat (sucrose polyester) and the regulation of energy intake and body weight.

A substantial number of people have difficulties in controlling their body weight and energy/fat intake. Fat substitutes may be helpful in solving these problems. We here report the first study on the longer-term effects of the nonabsorbable fat sucrose polyester (SPE) on energy intake in normal-weight subjects. We studied the longer-term (12 days) effects of the consumption of warm meals with normal dietary fat (5.0 MJ, 1,195 kcal) or meals in which 52 g of fat were replaced by the fat replacer SPE (3.1 MJ, 740 kcal) on spontaneous food intake (measured by dietary records), body weight, and gastrointestinal complaints in healthy volunteers in two studies. In the first study the 48 subjects were unaware of the treatment, whereas in the second study the 47 subjects were informed of what they received. In both studies men and women consumed less energy per day during the SPE (11.2 MJ) compared with the fat treatment (12.7 MJ) (P values < 0.0001) for the whole 12-day period. This was accompanied by equivalent changes in body weight. The percentage of energy from fat decreased from 43% during the fat treatment to 32% during the SPE treatment. During the SPE treatment, more gastrointestinal complaints and a higher frequency of defecation were reported. Information about the treatment did not affect. the outcomes. It is concluded that the use of a fat replacer such as SPE helps in reducing fat and energy intake in normal-weight people.

Adult↗
PubMed1986

Regulation of bovine adipose tissue metabolism during lactation. 1. Lipid synthesis in response to increased milk production and decreased energy intake.

Effects of genetic selection for milk secretion and dietary energy restriction on adipose tissue lipid synthesis were tested in first lactation Holsteins. Daughters of bulls of 795 kg or 167 kg of Predicted Difference, base 1974, for milk had a 305 d first lactation of 8626 and 7038 kg of milk at 3.02 and 2.71% milk fat, respectively. Animals of each genetic group were allotted to treatments of a diet of 40% hay and 60% concentrate or of 60% hay, 40% concentrate ad libitum from 0 to 140 d of lactation. First lactation heifers fed the low energy diet ate 19% less net energy and produced 7% less milk of 28% more milk fat percent compared with heifers fed the high energy diet. Lipogenesis rates at 15, 30, 60, and 180 d postpartum in heifers fed low energy diets were 107, 66, 21, and 166% of those in heifers fed high energy diets. Rates of lipogenesis in adipose tissue of heifers of high genetic merit were 40, 10, 45, and 66% of those in low genetic merit heifers at 15, 30, 60, and 180 d postpartum. Lipogenesis in bovine adipose tissue homeostatically adapts to decreased energy intake and homeostatically adapts to genetically selected increase in milk fat secretion.

Adipose Tissue↗
PubMed2001

The use of supermarket till receipts to determine the fat and energy intake in a UK population.

OBJECTIVES: To validate the use of supermarket receipts as an index of fat and energy intake in a population that buys most of its food from supermarkets. DESIGN: Cross-sectional, prospective dietary survey - feasibility study. SETTING: Households situated within a 20-mile radius of a large (Tesco) supermarket in Leeds. SUBJECTS: Two hundred and fourteen households who spend >or=60% of their food purse in (Tesco and other) supermarkets. RESULTS: Mean daily household purchase of fat, energy and percentage energy from fat contained in food from supermarkets were 185 g, 19.2 MJ and 35.9%. Mean daily household intakes of fat and energy were 190 g and 20.7 MJ, and 35% of energy was derived from fat. Mean household size was 2.4 persons. The association between the amount of fat and energy purchased from supermarkets and the amount of fat and energy consumed by households was strong. 0.90 MJ (95% confidence interval (CI): 0.8-1.0) of energy were consumed for every 1 MJ purchased from supermarkets and 0.76 g (95% CI: 0.64-0.87) of fat were consumed for every 1 g of fat purchased. CONCLUSIONS: The results show a strong association between estimates of the intakes of fat and energy and percentage energy from fat using 4-day food diaries and 28 days of receipts, in populations who buy most of their food from supermarkets. They also show that the fat content of total food purchases from supermarkets is 35.9% energy from fat compared with 33% energy from fat recommended by the Department of Health. This preliminary research indicates the feasibility of and potential for utilising large quantities of readily available data generated from supermarket checkouts in dietary surveys.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1983

A longitudinal study of changes in aerobic fitness, body composition, and energy intake in primigravid patients.

Sixteen primigravid patients were studied on four occasions (once in each trimester and again at 4 weeks' post partum) for predicted VO2 max (Canadian Home Fitness Test), body weight, and percentage of body fat (skin folds) and caloric intake (3 day food diary). The VO2 max declined significantly from first to second to third trimester and rose post partum to the second-trimester level. Energy intake was constant but body weight and fat rose progressively until after birth. When subjects were divided into "fit" (n = 8) and "unfit" (n = 8) groups, the fit group had significantly greater VO2 max, lower heart rate and diastolic pressure, and less body fat. These differences were not present at third trimester but were present again in the postpartum data. There were no differences in delivery or neonatal data.

Adult↗
PubMed1986

Response of alanine metabolism in humans to manipulation of dietary protein and energy intakes.

Healthy young adult men were studied with 3 different series of dietary regimens: different levels of protein intake ranging from 1.5 to 0.0 g . kg-1 . day-1; different levels of dietary energy intake; and an excessive intake of protein (3.9 g . kg-1 . day-1). Under each dietary condition, subjects were infused postabsorptively with L-[1-13C]leucine, L-[15N]alanine, and L-[3,3,3-2H3]alanine to measure leucine and alanine kinetics. Leucine flux was significantly reduced when protein intake was restricted (maximum reduction = 24%), but changed insignificantly with dietary energy change or excessive protein intake. Alanine flux and de novo synthesis increased significantly when protein intake was restricted (maximum increase = 50%), changed proportionally with changes in dietary energy, and was significantly reduced with high protein intake. Stepwise regression showed that dietary carbohydrate intake, not protein intake, was the primary factor affecting alanine de novo synthesis. In addition, the alanine 2H tracer produced a 2.5-fold greater measure of alanine de novo synthesis than did the alanine 15N tracer.

Adult↗
PubMed2002

Underreporting of energy intake is less common among pregnant women in Indonesia.

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the ratio of reported energy intake to basal metabolic rate (EI/BMR) among pregnant Indonesian women, as well as identifying risk factors for being an underreporter. DESIGN: Longitudinal study of dietary intake, using six repeated 24-hour diet recalls each trimester. Basal metabolic rate was estimated from body weight and physical activity from occupation. The lower 95% confidence interval for plausible EI/BMR was calculated and the proportion of underreporters estimated. Risk factors for being an underreporter were assessed in multivariate logistic regression analyses. SETTING: Purworejo District, central Java, Indonesia. SUBJECTS: Pregnant women RESULTS: For the three trimesters, EI/BMR ratio was and (mean+/-standard deviation), respectively. The proportion of underreporters was 29.7%, 16.2% and 17.6%. Characteristics significantly associated with underreporting in at least one trimester included high body mass index and low education. CONCLUSIONS: Levels of underreporting were low among the pregnant Indonesian women during the second and third trimesters. The low EI/BMR ratio during the first trimester likely reflects a true low intake due to nausea, rather than underreporting. Risk factors for being an underreporter included those known from developed countries, i.e. obesity and low education.

Adult↗
PubMed2002

[Effect of composition of enteral nutrition on energy expenditure and CO2 production during periods of average and excessive energy intake].

UNLABELLED: The objective of the presented work is to evaluate to what extent the CO2 production and O2 utilization and energy metabolism at rest (REE) are influenced by an excessive nutrient intake and to what extent by the composition of enteral nutrition. REE, CO2 production and O2 utilization were investigated in 9 patients on complete enteral nutrition by indirect calorimetry in four modifications: I--nutrition with 40% kJ fat in a ration 1.2x the energy output at rest at the onset of the trial; II--40% kJ and high energy intake (2.4x energy output at rest; III--60% kJ fat in ration of 1.2x energy output at rest; IV--60% kJ fat and energy intake 2.4x energy output at rest. At 40% (I) and 60% (III) fat content in a caloriocally adequate diet the energy output at rest, the CO2 production and O2 utilization did not differ (mean +/- SD: 1438 +/- 264.1 kcal/24 h, 179 +/- 31.6 nl/min, 209 +/- 38.1 ml/min vs. 1431 +/- 342.7, 190 +/- 54.2, 207 +/- 46.5). Comparison of modifications II and IV revealed a significant (p < 0.05) increase of CO2 production on a diet rich in carbohydrates (218 +/- 52.0 vs. 202 +/- 42.3). The energy output at rest (1674 +/- 389.6 vs. 1661 +/- 378.7), nor O2 production (240 +/- 54.5 vs. 242 +/- 55.4) changed. Overfeeding with 40% fat (II) as compared with (I) led to a rise of the energy output at rest (p < 0.05), O2 utilization (p < 0.05) and CO2 production (p < 0.01). Overfeeding with lipids (IV) led as compared with III to a rise of the energy output at rest and O2 utilization; CO2 production did not change. CONCLUSION: The composition of enteral nutrition according to the described modification does not influences the energy output at rest, O2 utilization and CO2 production under conditions of an adequate energy intake. In case of an excessive nutrient intake nutrition with 60% fat does not lead to an increase of CO2 production.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1995

Energy intakes are higher during the luteal phase of ovulatory menstrual cycles.

We compared energy and macronutrient intakes across the menstrual cycle in participants (n = 42) in a study that assessed the frequency of ovulatory disturbances in regularly cycling vegetarians and nonvegetarians. Women kept daily basal body temperature records for six consecutive menstrual cycles and provided 3-d diet records near the beginning, middle, and end of different cycles. On completion of the study, temperature records were quantitatively analyzed to determine whether cycles were ovulatory, and if so, the date the luteal phase began. Diet records kept near the beginning and end of cycles were matched with temperature analysis results, and women were grouped according to whether the end-of-cycle record was kept during the luteal phase of an ovulatory cycle (group 1, n = 29), or during an anovulatory cycle or before luteal phase onset of a short luteal phase cycle (group 2, n = 13). Group 1 had higher energy intakes during the luteal than during the follicular phase (9.27 +/- 2.69 vs 8.01 +/- 2.36 MJ/d, P < 0.0001), whereas intakes of group 2 did not differ across the cycle (7.91 +/- 2.18 vs 8.20 +/- 1.48 MJ/d, NS). Both groups' macronutrient intakes were similar in records kept near the beginning and end of cycles. Documentation of ovulation is necessary in studies assessing premenopausal women's energy intakes.

Adult↗
PubMed2002

Energy intake deficit and physical performance at altitude.

BACKGROUND: Physical performance of sea-level (SL) residents acutely exposed to altitude (ALT) is diminished and may improve somewhat with ALT acclimatization. HYPOTHESIS: A large reduction in lean body mass (LBM), due to severe energy intake deficit during the first 21 d of ALT (4300 m) acclimatization, will adversely affect performance. METHODS: At ALT, 10 men received a deficit (DEF) of 1500 kcal x d(-1) below body weight (BW) maintenance requirements and 7 men received adequate (ADQ) kcal x d(-1) to maintain BW. Performance was assessed by: 1) maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max); 2) time to complete 50 cycles of a lift and carry task (L+C); 3) number of one-arm elbow flexions (10% BW at 22 flexions x min(-1); and 4) adductor pollicis (AP) muscle strength and endurance time (repeated 5-s static contractions at 50% of maximal force followed by 5-s rest, to exhaustion). Performance and body composition (using BW and circumference measures) were determined at SL and at ALT on days 2 through 21. RESULTS: At SL, there were no between-group differences (p > 0.05) for any of the performance measures. From SL to day 21 at ALT, BW and LBM declined by 6.6 +/- 3 kg and 4.6 kg, respectively, for the DEF group (both p < 0.01), but did not change (both p > 0.05) for the ADQ group. Performance changes from day 2 or 3 to day 20 or 21 at ALT were as follows (values are means +/- SD): VO2max (ml x min(-1)): DEF = +97 +/- 237, ADQ = +159 +/- 156; L + C (s): DEF = -62 +/- 35*, ADQ = -35 +/- 20* (*p < 0.05; improved from day 3); arm flex (reps): DEF = -2 +/- 7, ADQ = +2 +/- 8; AP endurance (min): DEF = +1.4 +/- 2, ADQ = + 1.9 +/- 2; AP strength (kg): DEF = -0.7 +/- 4, ADQ = -1.2 +/- 2. There were no differences in performance between groups. CONCLUSIONS: A significant BW and LBM loss due to underfeeding during the first 21 d of ALT acclimatization does not impair physical performance at ALT.

Acclimatization↗
PubMed2000

Changes in plasma lipoproteins during low-fat, high-carbohydrate diets: effects of energy intake.

BACKGROUND: Low-fat diets can increase plasma triacylglycerol and reduce HDL cholesterol. Changes in energy intake and body weight can influence the lipoprotein response. OBJECTIVE: We sought to prospectively examine the effects of euenergetic and ad libitum dietary fat restriction on plasma lipoproteins in healthy postmenopausal women. DESIGN: Participants first received a controlled euenergetic diet in which dietary fat was reduced stepwise from 35% to 25% to 15% over 4 mo. Thereafter, participants followed an ad libitum 15%-fat diet for 8 mo; 54 women completed the intervention. RESULTS: During the controlled euenergetic diet, plasma triacylglycerol increased from 1.70 +/- 0.10 to 2.30 +/- 0.16 mmol/L, total cholesterol decreased from 5.87 +/- 0.13 to 5.53 +/- 0. 13 mmol/L, LDL cholesterol decreased from 3.41 +/- 0.10 to 2.87 +/- 0.10 mmol/L, HDL cholesterol decreased from 1.76 +/- 0.08 to 1.50 +/- 0.08 mmol/L, and apolipoprotein (apo) A-I decreased from 5.11 +/- 0.14 to 4.78 +/- 0.14 mmol/L (P < 0.0001 for all changes). Hormone replacement therapy did not affect the relative change in HDL cholesterol. Plasma glucose, insulin, hemoglobin A(1C,) free fatty acid, and apo B concentrations did not change significantly. During the ad libitum 15%-fat diet, participants lost 4.6 +/- 0.4 kg. Plasma triacylglycerol and LDL cholesterol returned to baseline values (1.77 +/- 0.12 and 3.31 +/- 0.08 mmol/L, respectively), whereas HDL cholesterol and apo A-I remained low (1.40 +/- 0.08 and 4.82 +/- 0.18 mmol/L, respectively). HDL cholesterol and apo A-I concentrations stabilized in subjects who were not receiving hormone replacement therapy but continued to decline in women who were receiving hormone therapy. CONCLUSIONS: The ad libitum 15%-fat diet resulted in significant weight loss. The euenergetic but not the ad libitum diet caused hypertriacylglycerolemia. HDL cholesterol decreased during both low-fat diets.

Aged↗
PubMed1986

Total energy intake: implications for epidemiologic analyses.

Associations between intake of specific nutrients and disease cannot be considered primary effects of diet if they are simply the result of differences between cases and noncases in body size, physical activity, and metabolic efficiency. Epidemiologic studies of diet and disease should therefore be directed at the effect of nutrient intakes independent of total caloric intake in most instances. This is not accomplished with nutrient density measures of dietary intake but can be achieved by employing nutrient intakes adjusted for caloric intake by regression analysis. While pitfalls in the manipulation and interpretation of energy intake data in epidemiologic studies have been emphasized, these considerations also highlight the usefulness of obtaining a measurement of total caloric intake. For instance, if a questionnaire obtained information on only cholesterol intake in a study of coronary heart disease, it is possible that no association with disease would be found even if a real positive effect of a high cholesterol diet existed, since the caloric intake of cases is likely to be less than that of noncases. Such a finding could be appropriately interpreted if an estimate of total caloric intake were available. The relationships between dietary factors and disease are complex. Even with carefully collected measures of intake, consideration of the biologic implications of various analytic approaches is needed to avoid misleading conclusions.

Adult↗