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PubMed1987

Effect of the preceding day's energy intake on the energy costs of rest, arm and leg exercise.

Relatively little is known about the response of the human body to perturbations in the energy intake. In particular, results of the effect of a perturbation of the preceding day's energy intake on the energy expenditure on the following day are conflicting, ranging from no effect at all to an increase in the resting metabolic rate of 12 per cent following an increase in the preceding day's energy intake of 5 MJ. In the present study, the fasting energy expenditure of rest, light arm work and light leg work was determined on days following an intake of 4, 10 and 16 MJ in seven healthy men. In each subject, the difference in energy expenditure between days following intakes on the preceding day of 10-10 (control), 10-4 and 10-16 MJ was calculated for each of the three tasks. The mean percentage differences between the days following an intake of 10-10, 10-4 and 10-16 MJ were (s.d. in parenthesis) 0.0 (4.0), +1.3 (4.0) and +0.6 (3.2) for the resting metabolic rate, -1.7 (4.0), -2.2 (3.2) and -1.7 (3.7) for arm work and +0.3 (2.0), -1.2 (2.9) and -0.3 (3.2) for leg work. When the differences for the three tasks were averaged, the results were -0.5 (1.4), -0.7 (2.4) and -0.5 (1.3) for the three combinations respectively. None of these differences were found to be statistically different from zero. Changes in plasma adrenaline and noradrenaline concentrations were also measured but found not to be related to the changes in energy expenditure or to the energy intakes.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Adult↗
PubMed1994

Dietary calcium intake in 18-year-old women: comparison with recommended daily intake and dietary energy intake.

Average dietary calcium intake and energy intake of 113 18-year-old university students in Western Australia was examined. Four-day, weighted diet records, including 1 weekend day, were completed by the subjects. A large proportion of the students (68%) had an average daily calcium consumption below the 800 mg recommended by the National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia. A strong positive association was also found between dietary calcium and dietary energy intakes. Many young women on self-imposed energy reduction diets are at risk of a dietary calcium intake deficit at a time when it should be enhanced. These findings are significant for nursing practice as they indicate the need for further health education concerning the importance of dietary calcium in young women.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1996

Energy intake adaptation of food intake to extreme energy densities of food by obese and non-obese women.

OBJECTIVE: Examination of energy intake in relation to energy density of food in obese and non-obese women. Assessment of energy and macronutrient intake over a day. DESIGN: Controlled food intake diaries of two weekdays and one weekend day. SETTING: Daily life, with visits to the department of Human Biology, State University of Limburg. SUBJECTS: 96 women: 68 subjects: 34 obese and 34 non-obese were matched for age (20-50y) and were selected based on completing the food intake diaries accurately, i.e. underreporting < 10% of their estimated energy intake. RESULTS: The obese women showed a food intake distribution of 24 en% (0-7.5 kJ/g), 52 en% (7.5-15 kJ/g) and 24 en% (15-22.5 kJ/g), with a macronutrient composition of C/P/F: 39/17/44 en%. (Significantly different from the values of non-obese (P = 0.007) and of the Dutch food guidelines values (P = 0.008)). Non-obese women showed a food intake distribution of 38 en% (0-7.5 kJ/g), 49 en% (7.5-15 kJ/g), 13 en% (15-22.5 kJ/g), with a macronutrient composition of C/P/F: 46/17/37 en%. Energy intake per meal increased from 1.2 or 1.3 MJ to 4.1 or 4.5 MJ over a day. CONCLUSIONS: In obese women food intake was adapted to extreme energy densities of the food and in non-obese women food intake was overadapted to extreme energy densities. Energy intake per meal increased during the day.

Adaptation, Physiological↗
PubMed1994

Underestimation of energy intake by 3-d records compared with energy intake to maintain body weight in 269 nonobese adults.

We assessed how accurately participants in dietary trials reported their free-living energy intake. We compared self-reported energy intake, calculated from 3-d food records, with actual intakes needed to maintain body weight during controlled trials lasting 6-9 wk. In 269 free-living healthy male (n = 119) and female (n = 150) adults with mean body weights close to ideal values (mean +/- SD body mass index in kg/m2, 22.1 +/- 2.4), energy intake reported in food records was 1.2 +/- 1.6 MJ/d (277 +/- 378 kcal/d) lower than actual energy requirements during the experiments. The relative bias was significantly smaller (P = 0.01) for men (-8.0 +/- 13.4%) than for women (-12.2 +/- 13.7%). Body mass index, daily energy intake, and age were not significantly related to the extent of underestimation. We conclude that food records systematically underestimate energy needs in young, nonobese well-educated adults.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2004

Energy density and portion size: their independent and combined effects on energy intake.

The energy density (kcal/g) and the portion size (g) of foods have been identified as two properties of foods that can modulate energy intake. Recent studies have shown that when either the energy density or the portion size of foods is increased, energy intake increases. Within a meal, when both factors are increased simultaneously, their effects are independent and add together to increase energy intake. On the other hand, reducing the energy density of a first course, while increasing the volume that is consumed, leads to a decrease in energy intake at the entire meal. The mechanisms by which both factors exert their influence are not well understood but likely include cognitive and orosensory factors as well as physiological controls related to gastric distention and gastric emptying. Findings from studies in this area of research provide evidence that the energy density and the portion size of foods are important determinants of energy intake. An environment in which the food supply is ample and large portions of energy-dense foods are readily available to consumers can contribute to an overconsumption of calories.

Diet↗
PubMed1997

Metabolizable energy intake and sustained energy expenditure of Alaskan sled dogs during heavy exertion in the cold.

OBJECTIVE: To measure energy expenditures of Alaskan sled dogs at rest and during racing under frigid conditions, using the doubly labeled water (DLW) technique. ANIMALS: 18 fit Alaskan sled dogs. PROCEDURE: Energy expenditure was measured in 9 dogs during a 490-km sled dog race by use of the DLW technique, whereby dogs were administered water enriched with nonradioactive isotopes of hydrogen and oxygen. Energy intake was determined by dietary analysis. Changes in background abundance of the isotopes 2H and 18O were monitored in 5 dogs that did not receive isotope-enriched water. RESULTS: Dogs completed the 490-km race at an average speed of 7 km/h at ambient temperature of -35 to -10 C. Total energy expenditure, measured by the DLW technique, was 47,100 +/- 5,900 kJ/d (4,400 +/- 400 kJ.kg-0.75/d), and metabolizable energy intake was 44,600 kJ/d (4,100 kJ.kg-0.75/d) during the 70-hour race. CONCLUSIONS: The sustained metabolic rate for these sled dogs during racing was extraordinarily high for a large mammal. This study validated use of the DLW technique in dogs with exceptionally high energy expenditure associated with prolonged exercise in the cold.

Animals↗
PubMed1995

[Obesity. Impairment of energy intake or of energy expenditure].

Obesity may result from two mechanisms: a chronic excess of energy intake and/or a reduced energy expenditure. Most studies failed to show a correlation between food intake and body weight; however, no efficient mechanism to spare energy has been demonstrated in obese subjects. Although an impaired thermic effect of food has been reported in obese subjects, this effect does not result in a substantial economy of energy. Total energy expenditure in humans is positively correlated with body size. This demonstrates that energy requirements of obese subjects is larger than those of lean sedentary individuals. The reason for these discrepant observations is the under-reporting of food intake by obese subjects. Obesity is therefore mainly due to a chronic excess of energy intake. Investigations on nutrient balances have shown interesting mechanisms which are relevant for the development of obesity. Carbohydrate balance is accurately regulated: ingested carbohydrates over 24 hours are mainly oxidized during this period of time. The other metabolic pathways of carbohydrates, such as de novo lipogenesis or synthesis of non essential amino acids, are of minor importance. Another property of carbohydrates is to elicit a greater satiating effect than lipids. Protein balance is also accurately regulated; the daily protein ingestion is matched by a similar amount of protein oxidation. In addition, protein ingestion has the greatest satiating effect among the three macronutrients. By contrast, lipid balance is not regulated because lipid oxidation. Overfeeding with a mixed diet shows that fat oxidation is negatively correlated with energy and fat intakes.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Dietary Carbohydrates↗
PubMed2003

Limits to sustained energy intake. VII. Milk energy output in laboratory mice at thermoneutrality.

The limits to sustained energy intake at peak lactation could be imposed peripherally, by the capacity of the mammary glands, or centrally, by the capacity of the animal to dissipate body heat generated as a by-product of processing food and producing milk. To distinguish between the two hypotheses, we examined milk energy output at peak lactation in MF1 laboratory mice exposed to 30 degrees C (N=12), 21 degrees C (N=10; published data) and 8 degrees C (N=10; published data). The peripheral limitation hypothesis predicts that milk energy output will remain constant at different temperatures, while the heat dissipation limit hypothesis predicts a decline in milk energy output as temperature increases. Since estimates of milk energy output in small mammals can vary depending on the calculation method used, we evaluated the milk energy output of mice (N=24) using four different methods: (1) as the difference between metabolizable energy intake and daily energy expenditure of the female, (2) from female water turnover, (3) from pup water turnover and (4) from the energy budget of the litter. We assessed these four methods by comparing their accuracy, precision and sensitivity to changes in parameters involved in the calculations. Methods 1, 3 and 4 produced similar estimates of milk energy output, while those derived from female water turnover were significantly lower and more variable. On average, mice at 30 degrees C exported significantly less energy as milk (87.7 kJ day(-1)) than mice at 21 degrees C (166.7 kJ day(-1)) and 8 degrees C (288.0 kJ day(-1)). This reduction in milk energy output at 30 degrees C was caused by a significant decline in both milk flow (20.0 g day(-1), 12.9 g day(-1) and 8.5 g day(-1) at 8 degrees C, 21 degrees C and 30 degrees C, respectively) and gross energy content of milk (14.6 kJ g(-1), 13.1 kJ g(-1) and 10.5 kJ g(-1) at 8 degrees C, 21 degrees C and 30 degrees C, respectively). Milk produced at 30 degrees C contained significantly less total solids (34.4%) than milk at 21 degrees C (40.9%) and 8 degrees C (41.5%) and significantly less fat (20.0%) than milk at 21 degrees C (26.4%) and 8 degrees C (30.3%). The reduced milk energy output in mice exposed to 30 degrees C, paralleled by their reduced food intake and low reproductive output, argues against the peripheral limitation hypothesis and provides strong support for the heat dissipation limit hypothesis.

Animals↗
PubMed2000

Critical evaluation of energy intake using the Goldberg cut-off for energy intake:basal metabolic rate. A practical guide to its calculation, use and limitations.

OBJECTIVES: To re-state the principles underlying the Goldberg cut-off for identifying under-reporters of energy intake, re-examine the physiological principles and update the values to be substituted into the equation for calculating the cut-off, and to examine its use and limitations. RESULTS: New values are suggested for each element of the Goldberg equation. The physical activity level (PAL) for comparison with energy intake:basal metabolic rate (EI:BMR) should be selected to reflect the population under study; the PAL value of 1.55 x BMR is not necessarily the value of choice. The suggested value for average within-subject variation in energy intake is 23% (unchanged), but other sources of variation are increased in the light of new data. For within-subject variation in measured and estimated BMR, 4% and 8.5% respectively are suggested (previously 2.5% and 8%), and for total between-subject variation in PAL, the suggested value is 15% (previously 12.5%). The effect of these changes is to widen the confidence limits and reduce the sensitivity of the cut-off. CONCLUSIONS: The Goldberg cut-off can be used to evaluate the mean population bias in reported energy intake, but information on the activity or lifestyle of the population is needed to choose a suitable PAL energy requirement for comparison. Sensitivity for identifying under-reporters at the individual level is limited. In epidemiological studies information on home, leisure and occupational activity is essential in order to assign subjects to low, medium or high PAL levels before calculating the cut-offs. In small studies, it is desirable to measure energy expenditure, or to calculate individual energy requirements, and to compare energy intake directly with energy expenditure.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2004

A comparison of self-reported energy intake with total energy expenditure estimated by accelerometer and basal metabolic rate in African-American women with type 2 diabetes.

OBJECTIVE: This study assesses the validity of dietary data from African-American women with type 2 diabetes by comparing reported energy intake (EI) with total energy expenditure (TEE) estimated by an accelerometer and basal metabolic rate (BMR). RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: EI of 200 African-American women was assessed by three telephone-administered 24-h diet recalls using a multiple-pass approach. Physical activity was measured over a 7-day period by accelerometer, which also provided an estimate of TEE. Underreporting of EI was determined by using cutoffs for EI-to-TEE and EI-to-BMR ratios. RESULTS: Participants, on average, were 59 years of age, with a BMI of 35.7, 10.5 years of diagnosed diabetes, and 10.7 years of education. Mean EI was 1,299 kcal/day; mean EI-to-TEE and EI-to-BMR ratios were 0.65 and 0.88, respectively. Among the 185 subjects with complete dietary data, 81% (n=150) were classified as energy underreporters using the EI-to-TEE ratio cutoff; 58% (n=107) were classified as energy underreporters using the EI-to-BMR ratio. Energy underreporters had significantly lower reported fat, higher protein, but similar carbohydrate intakes compared with non-underreporters. The EI-to-TEE ratio was not significantly associated with any demographic variables or following a diet for diabetes, but it was inversely associated with BMI (r=-0.37, P<0.0001). In a multivariate model, demographic variables, BMI, and following a diet for diabetes explained 16% of the variance in the EI-to-TEE ratio, with the latter two variables being the only significant predictors (inversely associated). CONCLUSIONS: Widespread energy underreporting among this group of overweight African-American women with type 2 diabetes severely compromised the validity of self-reported dietary data.

Black or African American↗
PubMed1980

The long-term effect of energy intake on salivation, hunger, and appetite ratings, and estimates of energy intake in obese patients.

The relationship between salivation, hunger, appetite, and estimates of energy intake was examined in female obese inpatients undergoing a course of weight reduction. On a constant low-energy intake (800 kcal/day) salivation, hunger, and appetite scores all declined. Estimates of energy intake did not. Sixteen different subjects were fed 1000 kcal/day for seven days, 500 kcal/day for seven days, and 1000 kcal/day for seven days. After acclimatization to the diet for a minimum of five days, salivation was directly related to energy intake; hunger and appetite ratings did not change significantly; and estimates of energy intake were sensitive to the decrease but not increase in energy intake. The limitations of each method of assessment are discussed.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1994

Unsaturated fat and low energy intake induce whereas an increment in energy intake ameliorates fatty liver during prolonged alcohol consumption by rats.

Two groups of rats were fed liquid diets containing 35% of energy as fat and either 36 or 26% of energy as alcohol to examine the effect of fat and energy intake on alcoholic fatty liver production. After 4 wk, five rats in each group were killed for analysis of liver triglyceride concentration, and then the alcohol diets fed to remaining rats were switched. All remaining rats were killed for hepatic triglyceride determination after another 4 wk. Rats initially fed the 36% alcohol diet or those switched to this diet ingested less energy, exhibited alcoholemia and slow growth, and developed fatty livers. Rats initially fed the 26% alcohol diet or those switched to this diet ingested significantly more energy, high amounts of alcohol and fat, exhibited low alcoholemia and faster growth than when they were fed the 36% alcohol diet. Fatty liver was absent in rats fed the 26% alcohol diet but was induced when they were fed the 36% alcohol diet. Fatty liver in rats initially fed the 36% alcohol diet regressed completely when the rats were switched to the 26% alcohol diet. Additional studies employing 36% alcohol diets containing 35% of energy as fat, derived from either corn oil or olive oil, revealed that unsaturated fat and not specifically linoleate plays a role in the induction of fatty liver. Thus, nutritional factors regulate the induction or regression of fatty liver and alcoholemia in alcoholic rats.

Alcoholism↗
PubMed1997

Food intake, energy balance and body weight control.

Obesity is a multifactorial and complex affectation that is characterized by a long-term excess energy intake (EI) above energy expenditure (EE). Since fat oxidation seems to be dependent on SNS activation and also seems to remain acutely unaffected by fat intake, this macronutrient is certainly partly responsible for this situation. In addition, high-fat intake does not induce as potent satiety signals or a compensation effect on subsequent EI as do diets rich in carbohydrates or proteins. Moreover, since alcohol intake acutely inhibits fat oxidation and does not promote subsequent compensation for its energy content, it should consequently be regarded as a substrate which can induce a positive energy balance under free-living conditions. Thus, in a weight reducing context, each energy substrate should be manipulated while taking into account its specific characteristics. Obesity has also often been associated to a decreased sympathetic nervous system (SNS) activity, hence sympathomimetic agents have been proposed as a possible way to partially correct this situation. Two of these agents are the widely consumed caffeine (CAF) and the pungent principle of hot red pepper, capsaicin (CAP), which acutely increase EE and reduce EI under some circumstances. Furthermore, other factors like dietary fibers, that have been shown to increase satiety and fullness, and reduce EI in some cases, should also be considered.

Alcohol Drinking↗
PubMed1998

Effects of chronic growth hormone treatment on energy intake and resting energy metabolism in patients with human immunodeficiency virus-associated wasting--a clinical research center study.

In previous studies, treatment with recombinant human GH (rhGH) produced sustained increases in weight and lean body mass (LBM) and decreases in fat mass in patients with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-associated wasting. To evaluate the effects of chronic rhGH treatment on components of energy balance, we recruited separate subgroups of HIV-positive patients with an involuntary weight loss of 10% or more to undergo paired measurements of resting energy metabolism (n = 6) or food intake (n = 11) before and during the final week of a 3-month rhGH (0.1 mg/kg.day) treatment period. In the energy metabolism subset, resting energy expenditure (REE) and substrate oxidation rates were measured by indirect calorimetry during brief admissions to a metabolic ward. Patients in the energy intake subset prepared written 4-day food intake diaries. Body composition was measured in both groups by bioelectrical impedance analysis. Changes in weight (+2.2 +/- 0.9 and +2.2 +/- 0.6 kg), LBM (+3.2 +/- 0.6 and +3.8 +/- 0.5 kg), and fat (-1.0 +/- 0.5 and -1.6 +/- 0.5 kg) in the energy metabolism and energy intake subsets, respectively, did not differ between groups and were comparable to changes seen in a larger group of patients who received rhGH in a randomized, double blind, placebo-controlled multicenter study. In the energy metabolism subset, REE (+232 +/- 69 Cal/day; P = 0.020) and lipid oxidation (+3.1 +/- 1.0 Cal/kg LBM.day; P = 0.016) increased, whereas protein oxidation decreased (-1.3 +/- 1.0 Cal/kg LBM.day; P = 0.027) during rhGH therapy. These changes in REE and substrate oxidation are comparable to changes we noted previously in a study of the effects of short term rhGH treatment in patients with HIV-associated wasting. Moreover, the sustained increases in lipid oxidation are consistent with the decreases in body fat content that occur with rhGH treatment. In the energy intake subset, a trend for increased daily energy intake (+203 +/- 262 Cal; P = 0.456) is obviated when adjustments for changes in weight or LBM are made (+1.3 +/- 4.0 and -0.5 +/- 5.0 Cal/kg BW and LBM, respectively). Taken together, these results demonstrate that increases in weight and LBM that occur with chronic rhGH therapy are accompanied by sustained increases in REE and lipid oxidation and decreases in protein oxidation. These changes in body composition occur without a significant increase in energy intake and may, instead, represent a redistribution of body energy stores.

Adult↗
PubMed1977

Effect of the preceding day's energy intake on the total energy cost of light exercise.

The effect of a variation in the preceding day's dietary energy intake-4, 10 and 18 MJ-on the oxygen consumption and respiratory quotient at rest and at work before and after a test meal (4 MJ) was investigated. 7 normal male subjects were studied at 3 different experimental situations. During the first day the subjects had an energy intake of 10 MJ and normal activity. The following morning measurements of V(O2) and V(CO2) were performed at rest and at work on a bicycle ergometer (36 W) before and after the test meal. The same measurements were performed on the following day but the dietary intake between the two sets of measurement was then either 6, 0 or 14 MJ. No significant effect was found of the preceding day's dietary energy intake on the oxygen consumption or on the energy transformed during rest, during exercise before and after the test meal. The results do not support the conclusions of previously published studies, proposing a significant feed-back mechanism tending to control the body energy content by regulation of the energy expenditure through chemical or mechanical uncoupling.

Adult↗
PubMed2003

An evaluation of the sensitivity and specificity of energy expenditure measured by heart rate and the Goldberg cut-off for energy intake: basal metabolic rate for identifying mis-reporting of energy intake by adults and children: a retrospective analysis.

OBJECTIVE: To identify adults and children as under- (UR), acceptable (AR), or over-reporters (OR) of energy intake (EI) using energy expenditure measured by doubly labelled water (DLW) (EE(DLW)), and to use this as a reference to determine the sensitivity and specificity of (i) EE measured by heart rate (EE(HR)), and (ii) the Goldberg cut-off technique for classifying subjects into the same categories. DESIGN: Retrospective analysis of a dataset comprising concurrent measurements of EE(DLW), EE(HR), basal metabolic rate (BMR), and EI by weighed record (EI(WR)) on 14 adults and 36 children. EI by diet history (EI(DH)) was also measured in the children only. EI(WR):EE(DLW) provided the reference definition of subjects as UR, AR or OR. Three strategies for classifying mis-reporters based on EE(HR) and Goldberg cut-offs were then explored. Sensitivity and specificity were calculated respectively as the proportion of UR and non-UR correctly identified. RESULTS: Approximately 80% of all subjects were AR. For EI(WR) and EI(DH) respectively, the sensitivity of EE(HR) was 0.50 and 1.00, and specificity was 0.98 and 1.00. Although designating subjects as having low, medium or high activity levels (EE(HR):BMR(meas)) and calculating cut-offs based on appropriate WHO physical activity level PALs did not change sensitivity, specificity dropped to 0.98 (EI(WR)) and 0.97 (EI(DH)). Cut-offs based on a PAL of 1.55 reduced sensitivity to 0.33 (EI(WR)) and 0.00 (EI(DH)), but specificity remained unchanged. The sensitivity of all cut-offs based on physical activity level (PALs) for EI(WR) was 0.50 (adults) and 0.25 (children). CONCLUSIONS: If the precision of EE(HR) was improved, it may be useful for identifying mis-reporters of EI.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2000

Altering the temporal distribution of energy intake with isoenergetically dense foods given as snacks does not affect total daily energy intake in normal-weight men.

The objectives of the present study were to examine the effects of (1) ingesting mandatory snacks v. no snacks and (2) the composition of isoenergetically-dense snacks high in protein, fat or carbohydrate, on food intake and energy intake (EI) in eight men with ad libitum access to a diet of fixed composition. Subjects were each studied four times in a 9 d protocol per treatment. On days 1-2, subjects were given a medium-fat maintenance diet estimated at 1.6 x resting metabolic rate (RMR). On days 3-9, subjects consumed three mandatory isoenergetic, isoenergetically dense (380 kJ/100 g) snacks at fixed time intervals (11.30, 15.30 and 19.30 hours). Total snack intake comprised 30% of the subjects' estimated daily energy requirements. The treatments were high protein (HP), high carbohydrate (HC), high fat (HF) and no snack (NS). The order was randomized across subjects in a counterbalanced, Latin-square design. During the remainder of the day, subjects had ad libitum (meal size and frequency) access to a covertly manipulated medium-fat diet of fixed composition (fat:carbohydrate:protein, 40:47:13 by energy), energy density 550 kJ/100 g. All foods eaten were investigator-weighed before ingestion and left-overs were weighed after ingestion. Subjective hunger and satiety feelings were tracked hourly during waking hours using visual analogue scales. Ad libitum EI amounted to 13.9 MJ/d on the NS treatment compared with 11.7, 11.7 and 12.2 MJ/d on the HP, HC and HF diets respectively (F(3,21) 5.35; P = 0.007, SED 0.66). Total EI values were not significantly different at 14.6, 14.5, 15.0 and 14.2 MJ/d respectively. Snack composition did not differentially affect total daily food intake or EI. Average daily hunger was unaffected by the composition of the snacks. Only at 12.00 hours did subjects feel significantly more hungry during the NS condition, relative to the other dietary treatments (F(3,18) 4.42; P = 0.017). Body weight was unaffected by dietary treatment. In conclusion, snacking per se led to compensatory adjustments in feeding behaviour in lean men. Snack composition (with energy density controlled) did not affect the amount eaten of a diet of fixed composition. Results may differ in real life where subjects can alter both composition and amount of food they eat and energy density is not controlled.

Adult↗