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PubMed2002

Suicide among New York City police officers, 1977-1996.

OBJECTIVE: The authors assessed the suicide rates of New York City police officers during a recent period. METHOD: The authors reviewed death certificates of active New York City police officers who died from 1977 through 1996 (N=668); age-, gender-, and race-specific suicide rates among New York City police officers and the city's residents were determined. RESULTS: The police suicide rate was 14.9 per 100,000 person-years, compared with a demographically adjusted suicide rate of New York City residents of 18.3 per 100,000 person-years. Suicide rates among male police officers were comparable to their reference population. Female police officers had a higher risk of suicide than female residents of New York, but the number of suicides of female police officers was small. CONCLUSIONS: The rate of suicide among New York City police officers is equal to, or even lower than, the suicide rate of the city's resident population.

Adult↗

PubMed2003

Sources and assessment of occupational stress in the police.

The role of the police in Western society is undergoing a transformation that reflects the economic social and technological changes in the community and the assertion of individual rights within a democracy. The aim of this study is to evaluate level of stress among a group of French policemen and to examine the association between policing, potential stressors and stress levels. The sample is drawn from a large metropolitan police force (n=617). The population extends from the first line policeman to top senior management. Each policeman is matched for age (more or less five years) and sex, to a control. Policemen and controls complete a self administered questionnaire including demographic, occupational and health characteristics, and a stress level assessment with the help of a visual analogue scale. The average age of the two groups is 40 yr. Eighty-four percent are men. The total score for average sources is not statistically significantly different for policemen and controls. Comparison of a police group with a high stress level to a police population with a low and moderate stress level is made. The comparison is done first only with men, and second with the whole population. Policemen with a high stress level (same results only for men and the whole population) belong to the following groups: more than 15 yr service, sergeant, officer and administrative employee rank, divorced experience, age over 30, no leisure-time activities and no hobbies. Multivariate analysis shows that the two last parameters are bound to the stress level. For the whole population, age over 30 has to be added, and for the group of men, length of service over five years should be noted. Stress at work is an ill-health provoking factor. Police from minority groups such as ageing subjects or police officers have been reported to experience greater stress. This population is adversely affected by lack of available manpower and long working hours. In fact sources of stress in the police population are found both in the weariness of the job and private life planning.

Adult↗

PubMed1999

Police perceptions of the mental health services and the mentally ill.

AIM: To explore police officers' perceptions of the mentally ill and of their working relationship with mental health services. METHOD: A survey of 200 randomly selected front-line police officers was carried out over the summer of 1996/1997. RESULTS: The survey revealed that police identified people in the community as mentally ill, dealt with those so identified and related to the mental health services in a variety of ways. However, the survey uncovered a degree of frustration at the limitations of the Mental Health Act 1992 and the limited options available to the police in cases where individuals can not be committed. In addition, the survey suggests that many incidents involving the police and a person with a mental illness do not involve crime. CONCLUSIONS: Although the police are generally happy with the dealings they have with providers of mental health services, when police are dealing with those identified as mentally ill they are placed in the dilemma of having to liaise with other agencies and bodies about something that is not a police problem and for which they have little training. It would appear that there is some merit in identifying, or lobbying for, agencies who could provide support for those people who require help but who do not fulfil committal criteria.

Humans↗

PubMed2004

[Compare the occupational stress and work ability among the police-officers, doctors and teachers].

OBJECTIVE: To compare the occupational stress and work ability in doctors, police-officers and teachers. METHODS: Changes in occupational stress work ability were measured with revised occupational stress inventory (OSI-R) and work ability index (WAI) for 288 doctors, 191 police-officers and 343 teachers, and then comparative and correlation analyses were made. RESULTS: 1. The difference in occupational stress and strain between the groups was statistically significant (P < 0.01), and the score of the police-officers was higher than that of the doctors and teachers (P < 0.05), but the personal resources of police-officers were lower than those of the doctors and teachers (P < 0.05). 2. Analysis of the 6 items of occupational role questionnaire revealed that the scores of role ambiguity, role boundary and responsibility were obviously higher in police-officers than in doctors and teachers, while the scores of role overload and physical environment were higher in teachers (P < 0.05). 3. Analysis of all items of personal strain revealed that the scores of vocational strain, psychological strain, physical strain, but not of interpersonal starin, were significantly higher in police-officers than in doctors and teachers (P < 0.05). 4. As to the personal resource, the results indicated that recreation and self-care of doctors and teachers were superior to those of police-officers. The score of social support was highest in doctors. The score of rational conduct was highest in teachers (P < 0.05). 5. Occupational role and personal strain were positively correlated, and both were correlated negatively to the personal resources (P < 0.01). The correlations of work ability, occupational stress and strain, and personal resources were significant in teachers (P < 0.01). CONCLUSION: For polices-officers, doctors and teachers, different yet relevant measures should be taken to reduce the occupational stress so as to improve their work ability.

Adult↗

PubMedDate not supplied

[Prevalence of respiratory symptoms, reduction in lung function and allergic sensitization in a group of traffic police officers exposed to urban pollution].

BACKGROUND: Environmental factors are believed to play a critical role in the development of allergic respiratory diseases, such as asthma and rhinitis. Particularly, the role of urban pollution in the pathogenesis of these diseases is debated. OBJECTIVES: The aim of the study was to investigate whether subjects with a well-defined occupational history of exposure to road traffic fumes presented an increased prevalence of respiratory symptoms of chronic bronchitis (cough), asthma (wheeze), and allergic sensitisation to the most common allergens and reduced lung function compared with an unexposed control group. METHODS: The study was conducted on 484 traffic police in Catania (465 men and 19 women), with a mean age of 45 +/- 7.9 years, who were subdivided into three groups. The first group included traffic police assigned to traffic direction, the second group included traffic police working in administrative offices, the third group included all traffic police who did not fall into the previous groups. In the first group, "truly exposed" subjects were identifed as police officers assigned to traffic direction in the last 8 years. Similarly, in the second group, "truly non-exposed" subjects were identified as police officers working in offices in the last 8 years. RESULTS: Statistical analysis showed a significant difference in mean age between the truly exposed group and the truly non-exposed group (p < 0.01). The truly exposed group showed a greater prevalence of symptoms (cough, wheeze and dyspnoea), and positive reaction to skin allergy tests compared with the "truly non-exposed group", but this increase did not reach statistical significance. Alterations of the respiratory function tests were more frequent in the non-exposed (14.3%) compared to the exposed group (9.6%). The highest prevalence of cough, dyspnoea and wheezing was detected in smokers compared to non-smokers and to ex-smokers within each group. CONCLUSIONS: Our results show a major prevalence of respiratory symptoms and allergic sensitisation in exposed traffic police compared with non-exposed police, although this did not reach statistical significance. Further epidemiological studies conducted on larger samples are required to better understand the role of road traffic pollution in inducing allergic respiratory diseases.

Female↗

PubMed1998

Factors associated with excited delirium deaths in police custody.

Increasingly, police respond to confrontations in which the individual demonstrates violent and combative behavior as a result of drug-induced delirium. From medical, legal, and police documents, 61 cases of excited delirium decedents in police custody between 1988 and 1997 are analyzed. In all of the cases, the person fought with and was restrained by police; the person was more likely to die at the scene of the incident or during police transport; and the police were likely to be responding to a disturbance call. In a number of cases, survival time was less than 1 hour. In a majority of cases, acute cocaine toxicity and physical restraint in police custody were contributory to death. The literature is reviewed, analyses of case circumstances are provided, and recommendations for medicolegal investigators and police personnel are discussed.

Cause of Death↗

PubMed2005

Social structure, robustness, and policing cost in a cognitively sophisticated species.

Conflict management is one of the primary requirements for social complexity. Of the many forms of conflict management, one of the rarest and most interesting is third-party policing, or intervening impartially to control conflict. Third-party policing should be hard to evolve because policers personally pay a cost for intervening, while the benefits are diffused over the whole group. In this study we investigate the incidence and costs of policing in a primate society. We report quantitative evidence of non-kin policing in the nonhuman primate, the pigtailed macaque. We find that policing is effective at reducing the intensity of or terminating conflict when performed by the most powerful individuals. We define a measure, social power consensus, that predicts effective low-cost interventions by powerful individuals and ineffective, relatively costly interventions by low-power individuals. Finally, we develop a simple probabilistic model to explore whether the degree to which policing can effectively reduce the societal cost of conflict is dependent on variance in the distribution of power. Our data and simple model suggest that third-party policing effectiveness and cost are dependent on power structure and might emerge only in societies with high variance in power.

Animals↗

PubMed2001

Convergent evolution of worker policing by egg eating in the honeybee and common wasp.

Mutual policing, where group members suppress each others' reproduction, is hypothesized to be important in the origin and stabilization of biological complexity. Mutual policing among workers in social insects can reduce within-colony conflict. However, there are few examples. We tested for worker policing in the common wasp Vespula vulgaris. Workers rapidly removed worker-laid eggs but left most queen-laid eggs (four out of 120 worker eggs versus 106 out of 120 queen eggs remained after 1h). Ovary dissection (1150 workers from six colonies) revealed that a small but significant number of workers have active ovaries (4%) equivalent to approximately five to 25 workers per colony. Consistent with effective policing of worker reproduction, microsatellite analysis of males (270 individuals from nine colonies) detected no workers' sons. Worker policing by egg eating has convergently evolved in the common wasp and the honeybee suggesting that worker policing may have broad significance in social evolution. Unlike the honeybee, relatedness patterns in V. vulgaris do not explain selection for policing. Genetic analysis (340 workers in 17 nests) revealed that workers are equally related to the queen's and other workers' sons (worker-worker relatedness was 0.51 +/- 0.04, 95% confidence interval). Worker policing in V. vulgaris may be selected due to the colony-level benefit of conflict suppression.

Animals↗

PubMed1991

Police response to wife assault in Northern Ireland.

To a large extent research on police response to wife assault had been dominated by the North American experience. Recent work in Britain has cast doubt on the extent to which these findings are applicable to the British context and drawn attention to the need for studies which explore the specific context in which policing occurs. It is argued that this approach has particular relevance in Northern Ireland where, in contrast to North America and Britain, the police operate in a context of political violence. Using data obtained from a series of semi-structured interviews with 67 women who defined themselves as victims of wife assault, the study examines police response in Northern Ireland. While the results indicate similar patterns of police response in Northern Ireland as those found elsewhere, the results also suggest that factors specific to the Northern Ireland context may influence women's use of the police, police procedures and police attitudes, and women's experience as victims.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2026

Surveilled subjectivation: narratives of drug policing among people who use prohibited drugs in Sweden.

In Sweden, possession and personal use of drugs are criminalized since 1988, resulting in police work being directed towards minor drug offenses. Despite this, police and other authorities are encouraged to protect the health and wellbeing of people who use prohibited drugs (PWUPD). Knowledge is scarce on how this drug policy plays out in practice. This study therefore analyzes interviews with 20 PWUPD who visited harm reduction services and interacted with policing agents in Stockholm, Sweden. The analysis is based on the participants' narratives of drug policing, and it concerns how they produced themselves as subjects through relations between materiality and discourse. We utilize the concept of surveilled subjectivation to elucidate what the participants could do, what they knew and who they could be or become under drug policing. Four themes were identified illustrating the link between discourse and materiality in PWUPD's surveilled subjectivation: "Material aspects of surveillance"; "Resisting the 'drug abuser' identity"; "Fighting power with power"; and "Crossing boundaries and becoming-other". The participants described nonstop efforts to prevent their bodies, activities, belongings and environments from being enfolded by drug law enforcement, which otherwise would fuel even more surveillance. They therefore disassociated themselves from the "drug abuser" identity, and managed encounters with policing agents by keeping a low profile or acting compliantly. While the study highlights the skills and knowledges the participants deployed to navigate omnipresent drug policing, we conclude that their production of autonomous and empowered subjectivities would be facilitated if possession and use of drugs were no longer criminalized.

Humans↗

PubMed1996

The impact of cohesive groups in the trauma recovery context: police spouse survivors and duty-related death.

This paper examines the impact of surviving spouse social interactions on psychological distress following the death of a police officer. It was hypothesized that satisfactory interactions within the police work group would lower distress, and unsatisfactory interactions outside the police environment (justice system, media, community persons) would increase distress. Results indicated that increased quality of interaction with police groups lowered psychological distress scores. Despite increased satisfaction with groups outside of policing, spouse's distress still increased, suggesting that satisfaction with and support by police groups appears to ameliorate distress more effectively than others. These findings suggest that police agencies and personnel may be helpful to surviving spouses after the death of an officer and should formulate policy to provide long term contact and assistance.

Adult↗

PubMed1997

Assessment of hand-arm vibration exposure among traffic police motorcyclists.

The aims of this study were (1) to evaluate subjective symptoms in the hand-arm system of all traffic police motorcyclists of a city located in the central part of Japan and (2) to assess their hand-arm vibration exposure associated with traffic police motorcycle riding. The study population consisted of 119 motorcycling traffic policemen and 49 male controls. By means of a questionnaire, information on the occupational history and the presence of subjective symptoms in the hand-arm system of all subjects was obtained. Vibration was measured on the handlebars of the representative motorcycles and on the hands of the riders. The 4- and 8-h energy-equivalent frequency-weighted acceleration as well as the lifetime vibration dose were calculated for all police motorcyclists. The prevalence of finger blanching in the traffic police motorcyclists was 4.2%, but none of the controls had this symptom. The rates of finger numbness (19.3%), finger stiffness (16.0%), shoulder pain (13.4%), and shoulder stiffness (45.4%) were significantly higher among police motorcyclists as compared with controls. The root-mean-square (rms) frequency-weighted acceleration on the handlebars of police motorcycles was in the range of 2.2-4.9 m/s2 rms. The computed 4- and 8-h energy-equivalent frequency-weighted acceleration values were 2.8-4.5 and 2.0-3.2 m/s2 rms, respectively. A pattern of increasing percentage prevalence with increasing cumulative vibration dose was noticed. The subjects with a lifetime vibration dose of more than 20.1 m2 h3 s-4 (in scale) showed significantly higher prevalence rates for symptoms in the fingers and shoulders as compared with the control group. As occupational vibration exposure of traffic police motorcyclists might be considered a risk factor for the development of symptoms in the hand-arm system of the riders, its evaluation and control is needed for prevention methodology evolution.

Adult↗

PubMed2006

Police chiefs' perceptions of the regulation of firearms.

BACKGROUND: This national study assessed police chiefs' support for various types of firearm control measures, perceptions regarding firearms as a public health problem, and the likelihood of initiating firearm control advocacy activities. METHODS: A 29-item survey instrument was developed to assess respondents' likelihood of firearm policy support, interest, exposure, involvement with firearm control advocacy, and demographic and background characteristics. The survey was sent out in spring 2005 using a three-wave mailing to a national random sample of 600 police chiefs in cities with populations greater than 25,000 in 2002 and 2003. RESULTS: The majority of responding police chiefs supported 11 out of 14 proposed firearm control policies. Most police chiefs (62%) believed that the government should do everything it can to keep handguns out of the hands of criminals, even if it makes it more difficult for law-abiding citizens to purchase handguns. Police chiefs were not likely to participate in the majority of firearm control advocacy activities. The advocacy activities that police chiefs were most likely to participate in were meeting with state legislators (52%) and writing a letter to a legislator in relation to gun control (44%). CONCLUSIONS: Police chiefs support several potentially important firearm control policies. This suggests the need to evaluate interventions aimed at increasing their role in shaping policy on this important public health issue.

Attitude↗

PubMed2006

Blood lead levels among police officers in Lima and Callao, 2004.

Lead contamination is a public health problem of world-wide scope that negatively affects the health of especially women and children. Nevertheless, studies on lead contamination and its impact on health in Peru are limited. The objective of the present study was to determine blood lead levels (BLL) of traffic police officers in Lima and Callao compared with values in police officers working indoors and with data obtained in 1992. The study was performed in May-June 2004 and included 52 traffic officers and 50 officers working in police stations in the north, center and east of Lima and Callao, Peru. Both groups were of similar age. The dependent variables were arterial blood pressure and BLL obtained in each officer. In addition a questionnaire was applied to evaluate risk factors for lead exposure. In 2004, the average BLL in traffic police officers was higher (44.7+/-6.1microg/l) than that of indoor police officers (39.3+/-8.2microg/l) (p=0.0001). However, none of the police officers had BLL of over 100microg/l. No differences were observed in the location of the residences of the participants and the respective traffic density. Those over 30 years of age had a higher risk of having a BLL over 42microg/l than younger officers (odds ratio (OR)=4.45). Traffic police officers had a higher risk of BLL >42microg/l (OR=4.80). Compared with data from 1992 obtained from the literature, an important reduction has been observed in 2004. This may be a consequence of the policy to eliminate leaded gasoline in Peru. However, it is still necessary to monitor this policy to ensure the elimination of lead in gasoline.

Adult↗

PubMed1998

Use of automated external defibrillators by police officers for treatment of out-of-hospital cardiac arrest.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the feasibility of police officers providing defibrillation with automated external defibrillators (AEDs) and to assess the effectiveness of this strategy in reducing time to defibrillation of victims of out-of-hospital sudden cardiac arrest. METHODS: This was a prospective, interventional cohort study with historical controls conducted in 7 suburban communities in which police usually arrived at the scene of medical emergencies before EMS personnel. All adult patients who suffered cardiac arrest before EMS arrival and on whom EMS personnel attempted resuscitation were enrolled. Police officers who were trained to use and equipped with AEDs during the intervention phase were dispatched simultaneously with EMS to medical emergencies. Police were instructed to use the AED immediately on determination of pulselessness. Outcome measures were the difference between control and intervention phases in interval from the time the call was received at dispatch to the time of first defibrillation and in rate of survival to hospital discharge for patients initially in ventricular fibrillation. RESULTS: EMS personnel attempted 183 resuscitations in the control phase and 283 during the intervention; of these, 80 (44%) and 127 (45%), respectively, involved patients with initial ventricular fibrillation rhythms. Mean time to defibrillation decreased from 11.8+/-4.7 minutes in the control phase to 8.7+/-3.7 minutes in the intervention phase (P<.0001). Survival to hospital discharge of patients in ventricular fibrillation did not differ between phases (6% control versus 14% intervention, P=.1). When police arrived before EMS personnel, shock administered by police compared with shock administered by EMS was associated with improved survival (26% [12/46] versus 3% [1/29], P=.01). Logistic regression analysis revealed AED use was an independent predictor of survival to hospital discharge. CONCLUSION: In 7 suburban communities, police use of AEDs decreased time to defibrillation and was an independent predictor of survival to hospital discharge.

Adult↗

PubMed1995

[Evaluating vision after photorefractive keratectomy within the scope of legal police service requirement 300].

BACKGROUND: The Polizeidienstvorschrift (PDV) 300 is a regulation which prescribes visual requirements for applicants to the German Police Service. Among other demands, uncorrected visual acuity (VA) of both eyes must be at least 0.5 before age 18 and at least 0.3 after age 21. The spherical equivalent of spectacle correction is ordained to fall into the range between -2.0 and +3.0 dpt. To date, recommendations for the assessment of excimer laser photorefractive keratectomy (PRK) with a view to Police Service applicants are still lacking. PATIENTS: Two applicants with myopic astigmatism were treated by PRK in order to meet the refractive requirements for entering the German Police Service. The first patient was judged fit for service two weeks after PRK was performed on his right eye. At this time uncorrected VA was 1.0 VA under glare conditions and contrast sensitivity had not been tested. The second patient had a stable postoperative refraction with an uncorrected VA of 1.0 in both eyes at six months postoperatively. VA under glare conditions and contrast sensitivity were normal. However, the medical service of the police authority demanded an additional follow-up of six months before judging this applicant fit for service. CONCLUSIONS: Before excimer laser PRK is performed in myopic police service applicants, a careful examination should rule out disorders of the visual system which are not related to the refractive error and may preclude admission into the police service. After PRK in this group of persons, a postoperative standard follow-up of at least six months should be demanded. Since fitness for night driving, self-defence ability and good orientation under difficult visual conditions are mandatory for police officers, any ophthalmologic certificate should make definite statements about glare and contrast sensitivity.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2005

The Cannabis Infringement Notice scheme in Western Australia: a review of policy, police and judicial perspectives.

Western Australia (WA) became the fourth Australian jurisdiction to adopt a 'prohibition with civil penalties scheme' for minor cannabis offences when its Cannabis Infringement Notice (CIN) scheme became law on 22 March 2004. This study examined the attitudes and practices of policy makers, members of the law enforcement and magistracy and other judicial sectors involved in enforcing the new scheme, and their views as to its likely impact on the drug market. As part of the pre--post evaluation of the legislative reforms a sample of 30 police, other criminal justice personnel and policy makers have been qualitatively interviewed. Data were collected both at the pre-implementation stage (March and June 2003) and shortly after the Act became operational (mid-June 2004). The Western Australia Police Service's implementation of the CIN scheme has been extremely professional. However, these early results suggest that while the CIN scheme has been designed to take into account problems with similar schemes elsewhere in Australia, possible problems include: some operational police being unsure about the operation of the scheme; expected savings in police resources will probably be reduced by procedures which require offenders to be taken back to the station rather than issue notices on the spot as intended by the scheme's architects; probable net widening; problems with exercise of police discretion to issue a CIN; and public misunderstanding of the scheme. In the early months of the scheme understanding of the new laws among both police and members of the public was far from perfect. For the system to achieve the outcomes intended by legislators, it is essential that levels of understanding improve. Media and other campaigns to inform the public that cannabis cultivation and use remain illegal, and to warn about risks associated with cannabis use, should be extended. As it will be at least 18 months before the scheme is operationally settled in, the media and others should be cautious about reading too much into police data on numbers of notices issued and on rates of compliance.

Adult↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Neighborhood environment, racial position, and risk of police-reported domestic violence: a contextual analysis.

OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to examine the contribution of neighborhood socioeconomic conditions to risk of police-reported domestic violence in relation to victim's race. Data on race came from police forms legally mandated for the reporting of domestic violence and sexual assault. METHODS: Using 1990 U.S. census block group data and data for the years 1996-1998 from Rhode Island's domestic violence surveillance system, the authors generated annual and relative risk of police-reported domestic violence and estimates of trends stratified by age, race (black, Hispanic, or white), and neighborhood measures of socioeconomic conditions. Race-specific linear regression models were constructed with average annual risk of police-reported domestic violence as the dependent variable. RESULTS: Across all levels of neighborhood poverty (< 5% to 100% of residents living below the federal poverty level), the risk of police-reported domestic violence was higher for Hispanic and black women than for white women. Results from the linear regression models varied by race. For black women, living in a census block group in which fewer than 10% of adults ages > or = 25 years were college-educated contributed independently to risk of police-reported domestic violence. Block group measures of relative poverty (> or = 20% of residents living below 200% of the poverty line) and unemployment (> or = 10% of adults ages > or = 16 years in the labor force but unemployed) did not add to this excess. For Hispanic women, three neighborhood-level measures were significant: percentage of residents living in relative poverty, percentage of residents without college degrees, and percentage of households monolingual in Spanish. A higher degree of linguistic isolation, as defined by the percentage of monolingual Spanish households, decreased risk among the most isolated block groups for Hispanic women. For white women, neighborhood-level measures of poverty, unemployment, and education were significant determinants of police-reported domestic violence. CONCLUSION: When data on neighborhood conditions at the block group level and their interaction with individual racial position are linked to population-based surveillance systems, domestic violence intervention and prevention efforts can be improved.

Adolescent↗