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PubMed1986

Influence of skin temperature on latency and amplitude of skin potential responses in the cat.

The effect of skin temperature changes on skin potential response (SPR) amplitude and latency was examined in the cat. SPRs were elicited either by stimulating the reticular formation or the distal end of the median nerve. At room temperature, the latency due to the neuroglandular transmission and to the peripheral effector accounts for about half of the total latency of SPR evoked by reticular stimulation. This latency increases to several seconds at low skin temperatures (approximately 10 degrees C), decreases with temperature, and is minimal (300 msec) at high temperatures (over 40 degrees C). SPR amplitude increases with skin temperature, reaches a maximal value (usually around 30 degrees C) and then decreases at higher temperatures. The decrease of latency at higher temperatures confirms results previously obtained in humans. However, the mechanisms of amplitude decrease for high temperatures remain unclear.

Animals↗
PubMed1998

The influence of skin temperature on latency and amplitude of the sympathetic skin response in normal subjects.

The influence of skin temperature on latency and amplitude of the sympathetic skin response (SSR) was studied in 10 normal subjects. SSRs were elicited in all four limbs of each subject by electrical stimulation after cooling of the right arm and after cooling of the right hand only. At low skin temperature, the latency was prolonged and the amplitude decreased. Latency and amplitude were linearly correlated with skin temperature of the right arm. There were no changes in the left arm and the legs, which basically excludes involvement of central pathways in these response parameters. With regard to the skin temperature of the arm, a temperature correction factor of 0.088 s/degrees C was calculated for latency. With regard to the skin temperature of the hand, latency prolongation was significantly greater after cooling of the whole arm. This suggests that not only the neuroglandular junction, but also the postganglionic sympathetic C fibers were responsible for latency modifications. In contrast, amplitude was reduced similarly after cooling of the whole arm and the hand only, suggesting that mainly the neuroglandular junction is responsible for amplitude modifications. We conclude that skin temperature is a mandatory measurement in the study of the SSR.

Adult↗
PubMed1977

Punctate pressure sensitivity: effects of skin temperature.

The dependence on skin temperature of tactile sensitivity to punctiform (hair) stimulation of the finger tip came under study in five subjects. Their data show that punctate sensitivity is relatively stable over a wide range of thermal environments. On the average, some elevation of touch threshold occurred at a skin temperature of 20 degrees C (i.e., about 10 degree below normal), but severe loss of sensitivity first occurred at 10 degrees C. A small but possibly insignificant loss appeared at skin temperatures of 40 and 43 degrees C. The relatively stable behavior of the punctate threshold between about 20 and 40 degrees C contrasts with that of the vibrotactile threshold, which, at least for high frequencies, depends strongly on the skin temperature.

Adult↗
PubMed1983

Nerve conduction studies in upper extremities: skin temperature corrections.

The relationship of skin to near nerve (NN) temperature and to nerve conduction velocity (NCV) and distal latency (DL) was studied in 34 normal adult subjects before and after cooling both upper extremities. Median and ulnar motor and sensory NCV, DL, and NN temperature were determined at ambient temperature (mean X skin temp = 33 C) and after cooling, at approximately 26, 28, and 30 C of forearm skin temperature. Skin temperatures on the volar side of the forearm, wrist, palm, and fingers and NN temperature at the forearm, midpalm, and thenar or hypothenar eminence were compared with respective NCV and DL. Results showed a significant linear correlation between skin temperature and NN temperature at corresponding sites (r2 range, 0.4-0.84; p less than 0.005). Furthermore, both skin and NN temperatures correlated significantly with respective NCV and DL. Midline wrist skin temperature showed the best correlation to NCV and DL. Median motor and sensory NCV were altered 1.5 and 1.4m/sec/C degree and their DL 0.2 msec/C degree of wrist skin temperature change, respectively. Ulnar motor and sensory NCV were changed 2.1 and 1.6m/sec/C degree respectively, and 0.2 msec/C degree wrist temperature for motor and sensory DL. Average ambient skin temperature at the wrist (33 C) was used as a standard skin temperature in the temperature correction formula: NCV or DL(temp corrected) = CF(Tst degree - Tm degree) + obtained NCV or DL, where Tst = 33 C for wrist, Tm = the measured skin temperature, and CF = correction factor of tested nerve. Use of temperature correction formula for NCV and DL is suggested in patients with changed wrist skin temperature outside 29.6-36.4C temperature range.

Adult↗
PubMed1998

Effects of room temperature, seasonal condition and food intake on finger skin temperature during cold exposure test for diagnosing hand-arm vibration syndrome.

For diagnosing the hand-arm vibration syndrome, peripheral circulation and sensory tests immersing one hand in cold water at 10 degrees C for 10 min have been performed widely in Japan. The authors investigated the effects of room temperature, seasonal condition and food intake on the test results, especially finger skin temperature. Six healthy males were examined repeatedly under six different room temperatures at 10 degrees C, 15 degrees C, 20 degrees C, 22.5 degrees C, 25 degrees C and 30 degrees C. Eight healthy males were examined under room temperatures at 10 degrees C, 20 degrees C and 30 degrees C, repeatedly in winter, spring, summer and autumn. Six healthy males were examined in summer under room temperature at 22.5 degrees C repeatedly 1 hr after, 3 hr after meal and after fasting for 13 hr. The finger skin temperature was strongly affected by room temperature. The finger skin temperature was also affected by seasonal condition. No remarkable effect of food intake was observed. For estimating circulatory function of the upper extremities using the finger skin temperature, the room temperature should be strictly controlled and the effect of seasonal condition must be taken into consideration.

Adult↗
PubMed1994

[The effects of environmental thermal condition on transitional skin temperature of peripheral parts of human hands and feet during exercise].

The effects of environmental temperature on transitional skin temperatures of peripheral parts of human hands and feet were examined during exercise to obtain basic information on thermal characteristics of heat transfer from human body to the environment. Very thin and fat male adults served as subjects who were in contrast regarding fat content. Their skin temperatures were undertaken by thermocouples in a climate chamber. The exercise was made using an ergometer at three stages of the chamber temperatures. The skin temperature of a fat subject's trunk was observed to be lower than that of thin subject due to the insulation of fat in the body. In compensation for less heat transfer from the trunk, the temperatures of peripheral parts of fat subject's hands and feet were higher than that of the thin subject. Moreover, the response of the temperature to the thermal load due to exercise was observed to be quicker. These kinds of variation were considered as due to the increase in blood flow through arteriovenous anastomoses, AVA. It seemed that AVA blood of the thin subject did not increase during resting condition at the environmental temperatures of 10 and 20 degrees C but was accelerated by the thermal load due to exercise. In addition, the response of AVA on the foot seemed to be delayed compared with that on the hand.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

Evaluation of wireless determination of skin temperature using iButtons.

Measurements of skin temperatures are often complicated because of the use of wired sensors. This is so in field studies, but also holds for many laboratory conditions. This article describes a wireless temperature system for human skin temperature measurements, i.e. the Thermochron iButton DS1291H. The study deals with validation of the iButton and its application on the human skin, and describes clinical and field measurements. The validation study shows that iButtons have a mean accuracy of -0.09 degrees C (-0.4 degrees C at most) with a precision of 0.05 degrees C (0.09 degrees C at most). These properties can be improved by using calibration. Due to the size of the device the response time is longer than that of conventional sensors, with a tau in water of 19 s. On the human skin under transient conditions the response time is significantly longer, revealing momentary deviations with a magnitude of 1 degrees C. The use of iButtons has been described in studies on circadian rhythms, sleep and cardiac surgery. With respect to circadian rhythm and sleep research, skin temperature assessment by iButtons is of significant value in laboratory, clinical and home situations. We demonstrate that differences in laboratory and field measurements add to our understanding of thermophysiology under natural living conditions. The advantage of iButtons in surgery research is that they are easy to sterilize and wireless so that they do not hinder the surgical procedure. In conclusion, the application of iButtons is advantageous for measuring skin temperatures in those situations in which wired instruments are unpractical and fast responses are not required.

Adult↗
PubMed1992

Fall in skin temperature of exercising man.

Fall in skin temperature during initial muscular work was investigated in ten healthy men. Bicycle exercise was performed at workloads of 50-150 W in a climatic chamber at ambient temperatures of 10-40 degrees C (relative humidity 45-55%). Skin temperatures at seven or eight points over the body surface were measured using thermography and thermocouple recording systems. Sweat rates were significantly higher at 40 degrees C than at 30 degrees C, whereas the fall in skin temperature was almost equal. The reduction of skin temperature during exercise was the same throughout the year, although sweat rate was significantly higher in summer than in winter. In coloured thermographics of the skin temperature distribution during exercise of both 50 and 150 W at 10 or 20 degrees C, the skin temperature began to decline immediately at the onset of the exercise. Increased work intensities reduced skin temperature. The results suggest that fall in skin temperature during initial exercise was not due to increased evaporative cooling but to vasoconstriction, probably caused by non-thermal factors.

Bicycling↗
PubMed1989

Increased skin temperature after vibratory stimulation.

The skin temperature effect of vibratory stimulation was studied in 28 healthy subjects. Vibration (50 Hz or 100 Hz) was applied to the volar surface of the left forearm for 15 min. Skin temperature of the bilateral forearms was measured before and immediately after cessation of vibration and at 5 and 10 min postvibration. Vibration at 100 Hz for 15 min on all 28 subjects was associated with a temperature increase of 4.20 +/- 0.79 degrees F that was significantly (P less than 0.01) higher than that in the controls (0.38 +/- 0.33 degrees F). Skin temperature decreased to previbration levels by 50 min of postvibration. The 11 subjects who received 50-Hz vibration for 15 min showed a skin temperature increase (0.75 +/- 0.23 degrees F) in the vibrated forearm significantly (P less than 0.01) higher than that in the control forearm (0.11 +/- 0.17 degrees F). All measurements decreased to previbration skin temperatures by 10-min postvibration. Vibration at 100 Hz also produced skin erythema in all subjects, whereas 50-Hz vibration produced no erythema. The mechanism by which 100-Hz vibration relieves pain is largely unclear, but it could be associated with increased skin temperature and erythema.

Adult↗
PubMed1977

["No-touch" measurement of skin temperature in cerebral ischemia and lesions of the sympathetic trunk. Clinical and technical testing of a new infrared apparatus for measuring skin temperature (Ultrakust Thermophil M 202) (author's transl)].

The clinical test was carried out in extracranial carotid occlusions and acute peripheral paralysis with sympathetic lesions. The measurements obtained were compared with those of the infrared thermovision. Both in the technical and in the clinical tests, the device proved to be very suitable. The practical procedure of temperature measurement (cerebral ischemia and lesions of the sympathetic trunk) is described.

Aged↗
PubMed2006

Skin temperature and sleep-onset latency: changes with age and insomnia.

Throughout the 24-hour day, the occurrence of sleep and wakefulness is closely related to changes in body temperatures. Changes in skin temperature may causally affect the ability to initiate and maintain sleep. First, we briefly summarize a previously proposed neurobiological mechanism that couples skin temperature to sleep propensity. Next we review previous findings on the relation between skin temperature and sleep-onset latency, indicating that sleep propensity can be enhanced by warming the skin to the level that normally occurs prior to--and during--sleep. Finally, we present new data indicating age- and insomnia-related changes in the sleep-onset latency response to foot warming, and evaluate whether different methods of foot warming could provide an applicable strategy to address sleep complaints. Foot temperature manipulations included footbaths before sleep onset (1), and heatable bed socks applied either before (2) or after lights-off (3). In adults, sleep-onset was accelerated by warm and neutral bed socks after lights-off and correlated to the increase in foot temperature. This increase was attenuated in elderly subjects. In elderly subjects without sleep difficulties, sleep onset could be accelerated with neutral bed socks after lights-off and a warm footbath prior to lights-off. In elderly insomniacs, none of the treatments accelerated sleep onset. We illustrate that elderly subjects show an attenuated increase in foot temperature after lights-off and lose the relationship between pre-sleep heat-loss activation and sleep latency. The sensitivity of sleep propensity to foot warming changes with age and is attenuated in age-related insomnia.

Adult↗
PubMed1993

The effect of evaporative cooling of respiratory protective devices on skin temperature, thermal sensation, and comfort.

High skin temperature of the face is a major source of discomfort while wearing respiratory protective devices. In this paper theoretical considerations of thermal exchange between the face and the environment with and without a mask are discussed to elucidate factors that may improve the design of masks to increase their acceptability. Comfort thresholds have been related to skin temperature for both resting and exercising subjects. Skin temperature below 34.5 degrees C at rest, and 31 degrees C during exercise, is rated as comfortable. In a previous study it was determined that evaporative cooling could reduce skin temperature and decrease discomfort in a dummy mask. In the present study evaporative cooling of a more sophisticated dummy mask and a modified Scott model 66 twin-cartridge respirator was tested in resting and exercising subjects. Skin temperature was significantly reduced when wet felt covered the surface of both masks and at rest the masks were rated as significantly more comfortable than with dry felt on the outer surface. It is concluded that evaporative cooling of an existing face mask can reduce skin temperature to the comfort threshold in resting subjects. Data suggest that similar results are attainable for exercising subjects.

Adult↗
PubMed1985

Artifacts in the measurement of skin temperature under infant radiant warmers.

All skin temperature probes measure, to some extent, operative temperature as well as skin temperature, and thus artifactually measure a temperature different from true skin temperature. To assess the magnitude and direction of these artifacts in the measurement of surface temperature in radiant warmers designed for human infants, the artifactual deviation of measured surface temperatures from mean surface temperature was determined under a short-wavelength warmer and a long-wavelength radiant warmer, using a copper ball as an experimental model. The measurements were made using both a disk-shaped thermistor and a tubular thermistor. All measurements were made near the top of the hemisphere of the ball facing the heating element of the warmer. In all cases, the average artifact was negative. That is, even on the surface of the ball near the radiant heat source, the surface temperature probes recorded an artifactually low temperature. In the analogous clinical setting, a somewhat larger negative artifact would be expected.

Biomedical Engineering↗
PubMed2004

Effect of elevating the skin temperature during topical ALA application on in vitro ALA penetration through mouse skin and in vivo PpIX production in human skin.

An approach to induce increased protoporphyrin IX (PpIX) production in aminolevulinic acid (ALA)-based photodynamic therapy (PDT) of skin lesions is to elevate the skin temperature during topical ALA application. Increased skin temperature may increase the (depth of) penetration of ALA into the skin, which may in turn increase PpIX production (in deeper layers). The effect of skin temperature on in vitro ALA penetration into mouse skin was determined in an in vitro percutaneous penetration model at two different temperatures. The effect of skin temperature on PpIX production in human skin during ALA application was measured with in vivo fluorescence spectroscopy in temperature-controlled areas (5 different temperatures). The data from the experiment with the in vitro percutaneous penetration model clearly show that the penetration of ALA into skin is temperature dependent. The penetration of ALA through the mouse skin was higher when its temperature was maintained at 37 [degree]C than through skin that was kept at 32 [degree]C. The fluorescence data from the in vivo experiment show that the PpIX fluorescence increases with increasing temperature of the skin during the application period. The overall activation energy (E(a)) for PpIX production was obtained for each hour of the ALA application period from the fluorescence data using the Arrhenius equation. The E(a) value in the first hour of ALA application was not significant, indicating that the PpIX production in that period is dominated by processes that are not temperature dependent, like the passive diffusion of ALA across the stratum corneum. In the second, third and fourth hours of ALA application, the E(a) for PpIX production proved to be significant, which indicates that the PpIX production in these time intervals is dominated by temperature-dependent processes. In conclusion, the data from the present study indicate that improving ALA-based PDT of skin lesions might be achieved by elevating the skin temperature during the ALA application.

Administration, Topical↗
PubMed2004

Effects of sock type on foot skin temperature and thermal demand during exercise.

Many fabrics and clothing 'systems' have been designed to enhance heat balance and provide greater thermal comfort for the wearer. However, studies on the effects of socks have largely been ignored in clothing research. It has been suggested that the thermal state of the extremities may alter core temperature and mental stress may be a major determinant of skin blood perfusion on the foot. However, no definite conclusions have been drawn. The aim of this study was to examine the effects of two different sock types on foot skin temperature and to investigate any impact on whole body thermoregulation and energy expenditure. Sixteen subjects carried out two sessions of treadmill running exercise, one session wearing a standard running sock and one session wearing an ergonomic asymmetric fitted sock. The overall mean heart rate, core (aural) temperature, foot skin temperature, weighted mean skin temperature and sweat rate during exercise were not statistically significant between the sock conditions (p > 0.05). There was a consistent trend in all participants for the ergonomic sock to induce a higher core temperature and higher skin temperatures compared to the standard sock. Overall mean ratings of perceived exertion and ratings of thermal perception were similar for both sock conditions. Participant questionnaires highlighted a general perception that the ergonomic socks had superior cushioning but that the standard socks were comfortable to wear. Despite there being no significant physiological or thermal differences between socks, the ergonomic sock was perceived to be cooler and was the preferred sock which suggests that subjective perceptions may be more important than objective measurements when selecting a sock for wear during prolonged exercise.

Adult↗