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PubMed1994

Is a low skinfold thickness an indicator of osteoporosis?

OBJECTIVE: The association between thin skin and osteoporosis has been known for some years. We wished to assess a simple measure of skinfold thickness (SFT) as a screening test for osteoporosis and to study the effect of chronological and menopausal age on SFT in a group of osteoporotic women and normal controls. DESIGN: A case control study of 225 consecutive women who attended an osteoporosis clinic. PATIENTS: We studied 225 women, 141 with osteoporosis (mean age 61.8 +/- 10.5 years) and 65 normal controls (mean age 59.9 +/- 8.8 years), with 19 exclusions. METHODS: Each patient had routine biochemistry, spinal X-rays and a dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) scan of lumbar spine and femoral neck. In addition they had skinfold thickness measured by a single observer using Holtain Tanner Whitehouse callipers over the 4th metacarpal of the right hand. RESULTS: Mean skinfold thickness was lower in the osteoporotic group, 1.6 +/- 0.4 mm compared to normals 1.8 +/- 0.3 mm (P < 0.0001). SFT did not decline significantly with chronological or menopausal age in the normals (correlation coefficients r = -0.06, r = -0.09) in contrast to the osteoporotic group (correlation coefficients r = -0.52, P < 0.001; r = -0.27, P < 0.0001). Subjects with a SFT of < or = 1.5 mm had a higher probability of osteoporosis (odds ratio 3.12, 95% confidence interval 1.58-6.14). Subjects with a SFT of > or = 2.1 mm had a lower probability of osteoporosis (odds ratio 0.305, 95% confidence interval 0.126-0.740). CONCLUSION: Our results demonstrate a lower mean SFT in osteoporotic compared with normal women, with a negative correlation between SFT and chronological and menopausal age in osteoporotics, but not in normal controls. A low skinfold thickness appears to be an indicator of developing osteoporosis and a high SFT may indicate a normal bone mass.

Aged↗

PubMed1983

Body weight, static and dynamic skinfold thickness in small premature infants during the first month of life.

The growth of prematurely born infants is different from the growth of fetuses of the same age remaining in utero. This is in part due to changes in body composition that occur after birth. In search for a practical and reliable method to assess the growth of small prematures, we analyzed data obtained in two anthropometric studies that included 180 premature infants of 750-1750 g weight at birth, and we studied the relationships between weight, static skinfold thickness (SSFT) and dynamic skinfold thickness (delta SFT, i.e. the percentage of change in skinfold thickness between 15 and 60 s after application of the Harpenden caliper). The results show that the SSFT increases steadily after birth in spite of a significant decrease in weight and delta SFT. Whether it contains fat or not, the fold of the skin is increasing in thickness at a time when by weight alone, one would have considered that there was no growth. The nutritional implication of this finding remains to be studied. Serial correlations of measures obtained at each period indicate that weight and SSFT have a good correlation to same measures in subsequent weeks (P less than 0.01). delta SFT, however, showed only a weak correlation (P = 0.05). The delta SFT follows the general pattern of known changes in total body water, but it is not accurate enough to determine changes in individual infants; further studies are thus needed to find a practical method to evaluate changes of body composition and its relevance in the measurement of growth of premature infants.

Body Composition↗

PubMed2000

[Study on the measurement of skinfold thickness and estimation of body composition in Chinese primary and secondary school students].

OBJECTIVE: To determine the patterns and characteristics of skinfold thickness and body composition of Chinese primary and secondary school students. METHODS: 82,921 Han youths aged 7 through 18 were randomly selected from 13 provinces. Their biceps and subscapular skinfolds were measured and the body compositions were estimated by using Changling's and Brozek's models. RESULTS: In boys, the biceps skinfolds reached the top of 10.9 mm, and then gradually decreased. The subscapular skinfolds increased rapidly from 5.7 mm in aged 7 to 8.7 mm in aged 12, and then slowly increased to 10.8 mm in aged 18. The biceps and subscapular skinfolds of girls gradually increased from 8.9 mm and 6.0 mm in aged 7, to 17.0 mm and 16.5 mm in aged 18, respectively. Their increments were especially large during the post-puberty period. The percentage of fat in boys increased from 14.0% in aged 7 to the relatively higher levels (16.1% - 17.6%) during aged 10 - 14, and then decreased significantly to about 13% in the 15 - 18 age groups. The percentage of fat in girls significantly increased from 19.6% in aged 7 to 23.0% in aged 12, and reached 25.6% in aged 18. The percentage of fat of the girls was significantly higher than that of the boys in all age groups. The lean body mass, both of the boys and girls, gradually increased from age 7 to age 18, but the absolute increments of boys were 12.1% higher in aged 7, 16.8% higher in aged 14, and 34% higher in aged 18 than that of girls, Significant differences of skinfold thickness were found not only among different areas and socioeconomic groups, but also between urban and rural populations. The percentile norms of the sum of skinfold thickness were set up, both for boys and girls, respectively. It was found that the P(50) of the norms were evidently lower than that of the Japanese, which showed the generally low level of Chinese students' skinfolds. But the differences of skinfolds between Chinese and Japanese in the high percentiles, such as the P(90), P(95) and P(97), were small, which suggested the subcutaneous body fat of many Chinese adolescents had already reached a quite high level. CONCLUSIONS: It will be a big challenge to prevent obesity among Chinese students in the near future. The percentile norms set up in this study cover various age and sex groups of Chinese students. These norms will be useful for further screening obesity in Chinese students.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1991

The relationship between skinfold thicknesses, body circumferences, plasma lipids and glucose in the elderly.

A total of 699 inhabitants of Ljubljana (269 men and 430 women) aged over 60 years were examined. Weight and height were measured, the body mass index (g/cm2) was summed, skinfold thickness on 14 sites (biceps, abdomen /on the right side/, subscapular, suprailiacal, thigh, calf, lower arm /on the right and left side/) and 8 body circumferences (chest, abdomen, upper arm, thigh and calf /on the right and left side/) were determined. Fasting venous blood was taken for determining plasma glucose, total plasma cholesterol, triglycerides and HDL-cholesterol. Plasma cholesterol, both in men and women, is not associated with predictors of fatness - skinfold thicknesses and body circumferences. There are statistically significant correlations between plasma triglycerides and predictors of fatness, particularly in the body, both in men and women. The correlation of plasma HDL-cholesterol is inversely proportional to the predictors of fatness (circumferences and skinfold thicknesses) at the central and peripheral sites of the subcutaneous fat, in both sexes. Relations between plasma glucose and parameters of fatness (body circumferences) are weak and less frequent. They are noticed only in the female population. Body circumferences, predictors of fatness and the distribution of body fat can be as good factors as skinfold thicknesses in the population aged over 60 years.

Aged↗

PubMed1989

[The physical development of infants and young children. 6. Skinfold thickness--a longitudinal study].

As a further result of a longitudinal study (conducted from 1979-1982) the somatic development figures for the skinfold thickness of 84 male and 91 female children from birth up to three years are presented. The Lange caliper was used to perform the measurements according to the recommendations of the International Biological Programme (8 sites of measurement on the right side of the body). The results for the development of skinfold thickness are similar to those of the Dortmund Study (1974), but in part quite different compared with earlier longitudinal studies (1956): our own investigations show a greater skinfold thickness during the first three months of life and thereafter lower figures up to the age of 18 months. The results are recommended by the authors as reference figures for the G.D.R.

Child Development↗

PubMed1991

Body water measurement in growth disorders: a comparison of bioelectrical impedance and skinfold thickness techniques with isotope dilution.

Total body water was estimated as part of the assessment of body composition in children with growth disorders, using the newly commercially available method of bioelectrical impedance. This was undertaken to compare the precision and accuracy of the results with those derived from skinfold thickness against measurement of stable isotopically labelled water (H2(18)O) dilution as a standard. The comparisons were carried out to see to what extent the impedance method could be applied with confidence to assessment of children with growth disorders. Total body water was derived from impedance (I) using an association with height (Ht2/I). Impedance and skinfold thickness estimates of total body water were equally precise when compared with values obtained from H2(18)O dilution (limits of agreement -1.9 to +1.3 and -1.7 to +2.0 kg respectively). The mean intraobserver coefficient of variation for repeat measurements of impedance was 0.9% compared with 4.6% for skinfold thickness with an interobserver coefficient of variation for impedance of 2.8%. Bioelectrical impedance estimation of body composition is likely to be of value in the growth clinic when expertise in measurement of skinfold thickness is limited or repeated measurements are to be undertaken by different observers.

Body Composition↗

PubMed1993

The skinfold thickness in preterm infants.

The development of the subscapular, triceps and abdominal (suprailiac) skinfolds was studied in 120 healthy preterm infants with a birth weight below 2500 g at the age of 2 weeks, 1 month and 2 months. The skinfolds developed with the age of the infants, no gestational age related differences being noted. The triceps skinfold was thicker than the subscapular and abdominal skinfolds. The increase of skinfold thickness in identically-fed healthy appropriate-for-gestational-age preterm infants correlated with post-conceptional age. Small-for-gestational-age babies had thinner skinfold thicknesses up to a post-conceptional age of 44 weeks.

Birth Weight↗

PubMed1980

Height, weight and skinfold thickness of Michigan adults.

Height, weight, and selected skinfold measurements were taken on 544 Michigan males and 557 females age 18 and over. Mean body weight showed a tendency to increase with age for both sexes up to age 64 while mean height progressively decreased from its maximum at age 18-24 years. Between ages 18 and 64 years, mean triceps skinfold thickness of men increased 10 per cent, female triceps skinfolds 50 per cent. Mean subscapular skinfold values rose consistently with age for both sexes. Comparison of these findings with those from earlier national studies suggest that Michigan adults are heavier and fatter but no taller than other US adults.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1979

[Longitudinal growth data of development of weight, height, skinfold thickness, head-, chest- and abdominal circumferences in healthy children (author's transl)].

From 1974--1977 anthropometric investigations were performed in 173 healthy infants during the first year of life. Weight, height, skinfold thickness, head-, chest-, and abdominal circumferences had been measured as parameters for growth. Birth weight increased ceased threefold on 12th month in males only. There is no difference in the increase of height in males and females. Width of skinfold thickness increases rapidly until month 5, except abdominal skinfold. A radual decrease follows thereafter. The difference in decreasing velocity of skinfold thickness indicates changes in distribution of subcutaneous fat tissue during infancy. Growth of head-, chest-, and abdominal circumferences of males are similar to that of females.

Abdomen↗

PubMed1991

Reference data for obesity: 85th and 95th percentiles of body mass index (wt/ht2) and triceps skinfold thickness.

Body mass index (BMI) and triceps skinfold thickness (TSF) are commonly used measures of adiposity in clinical and epidemiologic studies. The 85th and 95th percentiles of BMI and TSF are often used operationally to define obesity and superobesity, respectively. Race-specific and population-based 85th and 95th percentiles of BMI and TSF for people aged 6-74 y were generated from anthropometric data gathered in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 1 (NHANES I). The complex sample design of the survey is reflected in the reference values presented. Racial differences in these extremes of the distribution do not emerge until adulthood. Researchers may choose population-based, race-specific, or age-specific criteria for obesity on the basis of assumptions underlying their specific research questions.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1988

The effect of human growth hormone therapy on skinfold thickness in growth hormone-deficient children.

Skinfold thickness (ST) was measured in 43 children with various forms of growth hormone (GH) deficiency during the first year of GH therapy. The average (and SEM) initial ST, expressed as standard deviation score (SDS) was 1.17 (0.25) for subscapular, 0.63 (0.18) for triceps, and 0.40 (0.21) for biceps ST. During therapy the average decrease is 1 SD. Children in the pubertal age group and those with partial GH deficiency showed smaller decreases. A larger decrease of triceps ST was associated with lower GH and insulin peaks, and lower age, bone age and initial weight-for-height. Some correlations between ST decrease and growth response in the first year were significant, but still too low to allow of reliable predictions. The same was true for other clinical parameters. These data indicate that a chronic lack of GH leads to unequal fat distribution, possibly due to different sensitivities to GH in the trunk and extremities. The variability of ST responses to GH therapy limits clinical applications.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2005

Body fat measurement in adolescents: comparison of skinfold thickness equations with dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry.

OBJECTIVE: To compare the most commonly used equations to predict body fatness from skinfold thickness, in male and female adolescents, with dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) as a reference method of fatness measurement. DESIGN: Cross-sectional nutrition survey. SETTING: General adolescent population from Zaragoza (Spain). SUBJECTS AND METHODS: A total of 238 Caucasian adolescents (167 females and 113 males), aged 13.0-17.9 y, were recruited from 15 school groups in 11 public and private schools. The percentage fat mass (%FM) was calculated by using skinfold-thickness equations. Predicted %FM was compared with the reference %FM values, measured by DXA. The lack of agreement between methods was assessed by calculating the bias and its 95% limits of agreement. RESULTS: Most equations did not demonstrate good agreement compared with DXA. However, in male adolescents, Slaughter et al equations showed relative biases that were not dependent on body fatness and the limits of agreement were narrower than those obtained from the rest of equations. In females, Brook's equation showed nonsignificant differences against DXA and the narrowest 95% limits of agreement. Only biases from Brook and Slaughter et al equations were not dependent on body fatness in female adolescents. CONCLUSIONS: Accuracy of most of the skinfold-thickness equations for assessment of %FM in adolescents was poor at the individual level. Nevertheless, to predict %FM when a relative index of fatness is required in field or clinical studies, Slaughter et al equations may be used in adolescents from both sexes and the Brook equation in female adolescents.

Absorptiometry, Photon↗

PubMed1981

[Triceps and subscapular skinfold thickness. A random sample, Geneva 1972].

Subscapular and triceps skinfold thickness were measured by using a Lange skinfold caliper, on a random sample of 2861 boys and 2692 girls aged 4 to 191/2 years. The technique of measurement is specified, and the data are submitted to statistical analysis with a view to standardization. For both skinfolds, the sample size, the arithmetic mean and the standard deviation in each age group and either sex are given in tabular form. Correspondingly, fitted percentiles are shown on separate graphs for both of these skinfolds, related to age as well at to standing height of boys or girls.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1996

Body-composition measurement in 9-11-y-old children by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry, skinfold-thickness measurements, and bioimpedance analysis.

We compared, in 9-11-y-old children (n=43), three measures of body composition: dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA), skinfold thickness, and bioimpedance analysis (BIA). The intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC), Bland-Altman procedure, and Spearman rank correlation were used to determine test-retest reliabilities of the three methods and to compare methods. For DXA measurements, the rank correlation between fat-free soft tissue and fat-free mass (FFM) was > 0.99, indicating that bone mineral content did not provide independent information. Thus, subsequent analyses used the two-compartment model (ie, fat mass and FFM) for all three techniques, focusing especially on values for percentage of fat. The test-retest reliabilities for all methods were high (ICCs > 0.994 and no significant differences between trials 1 and 2). The range of individual differences from trial 1 to trial 2 and Bland-Altman limits of agreement suggested that the reliability was greatest for DXA, followed by BIA and skinfold-thickness measurement. The percentage of fat values for the three methods were highly intercorrelated (all Spearman r values > 0.83). However, there was a systematic tendency (P < 0.01) for DXA values (mean: 23.98) to be higher than those derived from skinfold-thickness measurements (mean: 21.05) and BIA (mean: 21.52). The variance in percentage of fat values for BIA was significantly smaller than that for the other two techniques. These findings, along with rather large limits of agreement derived from the Bland-Altman procedure, suggest that the methods should not be used interchangeably.

Absorptiometry, Photon↗

PubMed1985

Neonatal skinfold thickness. Measurement and interpretation at or near term.

Skinfold thickness was measured at five sites in 750 infants. The study population was unselected except that twin pregnancies and the infants of diabetic mothers were excluded, and very preterm infants were under represented. A pilot study had indicated that skinfold measurement was most reproducible at the thigh site. Thigh skinfold correlated better with the sum of other skinfolds than did skinfold measurement at any other site and closely resembled the summed skinfold in correlations with a number of maternal and fetal variables. Median skinfold increased with birthweight and was greater in girls than in boys. 'Corrected skinfold', a mathematical approach to comparing skinfolds in infants of differing sex and birthweight, is suggested as an alternative to absolute skinfold measurement.

Birth Weight↗

PubMed2006

Skinfold thicknesses associated with distance running performance in highly trained runners.

It has been postulated that additional adiposity has a negative effect on performance in heterogeneous groups of runners. Previous studies have not tested this hypothesis in homogeneous groups of elite runners. The purpose of this study was to determine whether the sum of skinfold thicknesses and specific single skinfold sites were related to competitive running performance in homogeneous groups of male and female elite athletes. In total, 184 top-class runners (130 males and 54 females) volunteered to participate in the study. Skinfolds were measured at the following sites: biceps, triceps, subscapular, pectoral, iliac crest, abdominal, front thigh and medial calf. Runners were classified into groups in accordance with their best performance times. Correlation analysis and partial correlation coefficients that controlled for age and weight were applied to each single skinfold, the sum of six skinfolds (excluding biceps) and the extremity (sum of triceps, front thigh, medial calf) to trunk (sum of subscapular, iliac crest, abdominal) ratio and performance. Performance was rated by the scoring procedures of the International Amateur Athletics Federation. In male runners, the pectoral, iliac crest, abdominal, biceps, triceps, subscapular skinfolds and the sum of six skinfolds were not associated with performance score for any of the distances. High correlations were found between the front thigh (r = 0.78, P = 0.000) and medial calf (r = 0.55, P = 0.018) skinfolds and 1500 m run time, and between the front thigh (r = 0.59, P = 0.014) and medial calf (r = 0.57, P = 0.017) skinfolds and 10,000 m run time. In female runners, the front thigh and medial calf skinfolds were highly correlated with 400 m run time (r = 0.71, P = 0.022 and r = 0.81, P = 0.005, respectively). The results of this study indicate that skinfold thicknesses in the lower limb are positively associated with running time over several distances, and may be a useful predictor of athletic performance.

Adult↗

PubMed2003

[Effects of behavior modification on obesity index, skinfold thickness, body fat, serum lipids, serum leptin in obese elementary school children].

PURPOSE: This study was performed to investigate effects of behavior modification on obesity index, skinfold thickness, body fat, serum lipids, serum leptin in obese elementary school children. METHOD: Forty seven students were selected from two elementary schools. Twenty four children in one school were assigned to experimental group and twenty three children in another school were assigned to control group. Experimental group was received 60-70 minutes of behavior modification once a week for 8 weeks. RESULT: Obesity index of the experimental group was significantly decreased after behavior modification. But there was no significant difference between two groups. The increase of skinfold thickness was significantly low in the experimental group compared to the control group. Percentage of body fat and fat mass were significantly decreased in the experimental group. Fat free mass was significantly increased in the experimental group. HDL-C, triglyceride and serum leptin between the experimental group and control group showed no significant difference. CONCLUSION: These results indicate that behavior modification is effective in decreasing percentage of body fat and fat mass, in less increasing skinfold thickness and in increasing fat free mass. In conclusion, behavior modification can be used as effective strategy for managing obesity in elementary school children.

English Abstract↗

PubMed1987

Skinfold thickness and cardiovascular risk factors.

The relation of blood pressure, serum cholesterol, plasma fibrinogen, and coagulation factor VIIc with skinfold thickness at four sites (forearm, triceps, suprailiac, and subscapular) was examined in 2,948 white participants in the Northwick Park Heart Study. When considered separately, all four skinfolds were significantly associated with the four cardiovascular risk factors in males. Of the two limb skinfolds, forearm was consistently more strongly associated than triceps with the risk factors. The magnitude of the association between forearm skinfold and the risk factors was similar to that of the two trunk skinfolds, suprailiac and subscapular. Multiple regression analysis suggested an independent association of forearm skinfold with cholesterol and blood pressure in males when the other skinfolds were taken into account. There was no consistent difference in the strength of the associations of the two trunk skinfolds with the risk factors. With the exception of systolic blood pressure, the associations between the cardiovascular risk factors and skinfold thickness in males were stronger at younger ages. In the case of females the findings were somewhat different. The associations with the four risk factors were consistently stronger for the two trunk skinfolds than the limb skinfolds. Triceps was somewhat more strongly associated with the risk factors than forearm skinfold except for plasma fibrinogen. Thus there are sex differences in the association of the distribution of subcutaneous fat with cardiovascular risk factors.

Adolescent↗