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PubMed1990

Effect of sorbitol gum chewing on plaque pH response after ingesting snacks containing predominantly sucrose or starch.

The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of chewing a sorbitol gum (Trident) for 10 minutes on interproximal plaque pH changes following ingestion of selected sucrose- or starch-containing foods. The snacks containing predominantly sucrose (and/or simple sugars) were chocolate bar, cream-filled cupcakes, cream-filled sandwich cookie, cherry pie and raisins. The snacks containing predominantly starch were oat cereal, granola bars, pretzels, potato chips and corn chips. Plaque pH responses were monitored using an indwelling wire-telemetry system in five adult panelists. The test design involved two sets of 5 x 5 Latin square randomization in which each set consisted of two series of tests. In the first series of tests, the fasted, resting plaque pH was recorded for 5 minutes, panelists ingested the designated snacks for 2 minutes, and the pH response was monitored for the remainder of a 2-hour period. In the second series of tests, the same procedure was followed through the snack ingestion. After the pH response to the snack was monitored for 15 minutes, the panelists were asked to chew one stick of sorbitol gum for 10 minutes and the pH response was then monitored for the balance of the 2-hour period. Results indicated that both the sugar- and starch-containing snacks tested in this study caused significant decreases in interproximal plaque pH. Chewing a sorbitol gum after ingestion of the snacks significantly reduced the demineralizing potential of the plaque. The chewing of sorbitol gum following the ingestion of snacks can be recommended as an adjunct to other caries-preventive oral hygiene measures.

Chewing Gum↗

PubMed1983

Sodium intake from meals and snacks consumed by college students.

This investigation was designed to compute the total sodium intake from meals and snacks consumed by selected college students. Most students used carbonated beverages, candies, gums, cookies, and salted snack items. They consumed salted snack items mostly as evening snacks. Mean sodium intake was found to be 3,904 mg. for men and 2,628 mg. for women, without taking into consideration the use of table salt. Sodium density per kilocalorie per day was 1.40 and 1.41 for men and women, respectively, suggesting that the differences in intakes were due to women's lower caloric intake. Sodium intake was greater from regular meals than from snack foods. Evening snacks contributed more to the daily sodium intake than morning and afternoon snacks. It can be concluded that sodium intake of college students needs careful assessment. According to the Food and Nutrition Board, the most effective way to maintain intake within the suggested range is to reduce the amount of salt added at table or in cooking and to reduce moderately the selection of obviously salty foods (9). College students need to be made aware of the sodium content of foods they select for lunch, dinner, and evening snacks, as well as the amount of salt they add at the table.

Adult↗

PubMed1993

Snacking patterns in obese French women.

Snacking patterns were studied in 273 obese women by dietary history. Snacking was observed in 60% of the sample and occurred mainly during the afternoon. Total daily energy intake was higher in snackers than in non-snackers because of greater consumption of food at meals and between meals. A variety of foods were consumed as snacks (mean macronutrient content of snacks: 52% carbohydrate (CHO), 37% lipid and 12% proteins). CHO-rich protein-free snacks were a minority (20%). Only 7% of subjects were CHO-rich protein-free snackers. The eating pattern described by Wurtman in "carbohydrate cravers" was reported by less than 10% of these women. We conclude that, in Paris, snacking plays an important role in increasing energy consumption in obese women but macronutrient-specific snacking is not frequent.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1993

Glycaemic effect and satiating capacity of potato chips and milk chocolate bar as snacks in teenagers with diabetes.

In 14 adolescents with diabetes, the postprandial blood glucose, after ingestion of two popular snacks, milk chocolate bar and potato chips, was compared to a prescribed mid-afternoon snack that was isocaloric with the comparison snacks. The prescribed diabetes snack consisted of wholemeal wheat bread, margarine, cheese and apple (1533 kJ/365 kcal): 14% protein, 32% fat and 54% carbohydrate. The milk chocolate bar and the potato chips contained 4% protein, 55% fat and 41% carbohydrate. The mean blood glucose peak was 4.7 (+/- 0.8) mmol/l after the regular diabetes snack, after the milk chocolate bar 2.9 (+/- 0.6) mmol/l, and 3.2 (+/- 0.6) mmol/l after the potato chips (P > 0.05). The mean incremental area under the blood glucose curve was 450.3 (+/- 105.5) mmol/l x 180 min for the regular diabetes snack, 269.5 (+/- 96.7) mmol/l x 180 min for the milk chocolate bar and 191.7 (+/- 95.0) mmol/l x 180 min for the potato chips (P > 0.05). We conclude that an occasional exchange of a regular diabetes afternoon snack for an isocaloric amount of milk chocolate bar or potato chips has no negative impact on the postprandial blood glucose.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1990

The glycaemic effect of simple sugars in mid-morning and afternoon snacks in childhood diabetes.

Eighteen diabetic children ate three different snacks (free sucrose, sucrose plus fibre, fructose plus fibre) or had no snack on each of 4 mornings. Subsequently 10 children from this group took a standard snack (free sucrose) or no snack on two afternoons. In other respects the day of testing was standardised, the children going to school as normal and collecting their blood spots on filter paper for glucose analysis. There was no difference in the blood glucose profiles between different snacks or when no snack was taken either in the mornings or afternoon. This suggests both that moderate amounts of simple sugar do not have a detrimental effect on glycaemic control and that snacks can generally be omitted without serious hypoglycaemic problems.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2004

A role for glucose and insulin preprandial profiles to differentiate meals and snacks.

A physiological distinction between eating occasions may help account for contradictory findings on the role of eating frequency in energy homeostasis. We assessed this issue using a midafternoon eating occasion known in France as the goûter that often consists of snack foods. Among the 24 male subjects, 8 habitually consumed four meals per day, i.e., were usual goûter eaters (GE) and 16 habitually took 3 meals per day, i.e., usual non-goûter non-snack eaters (NGNSE). All subjects were time blinded from lunchtime and had to request subsequent meals. Blood was continuously withdrawn and collected with a change of tube every 10 min until dinner request. During the session, 8 of the non-goûter eaters (NGE) were offered a snack 210 min after lunch and were designated as non-goûter snack eaters (NGSE) if they ate. Results showed that the goûter was preceded by high hunger scores and a linear decline in plasma glucose (-9.0+/-3.0%, P<.05) and insulin concentrations (-22.9+/-6.0%, P<.05). These profiles were not observed before the snack. The dinner of GE was requested later and was smaller compared to NGNSE, whereas the snack altered neither time of request nor energy intake (EI) at dinner. Among blood variables, leptin at the onset of eating was the only factor that was predictive of both intermeal interval and EI. The glucose and insulin profiles indicate that snacks should not be considered as meals in studies on the role of eating frequency in energy homeostasis.

Adult↗

PubMed2004

Snack food intake does not predict weight change among children and adolescents.

OBJECTIVE: To assess whether intake of snack foods was associated with weight change among children and adolescents. METHODS: Prospective study of 8,203 girls and 6,774 boys, 9-14 y of age in 1996, in an ongoing cohort study who completed at least two questionnaires between 1996 and 1999. Intake of snack foods was assessed in 1996-1998 with a validated food frequency questionnaire designed specifically for children and adolescents. The outcome measure was change in age- and gender-specific z-score of body mass index (BMI). RESULTS: Boys consumed more snack foods than girls during the entire study period. After controlling for Tanner stage of development, age, height change, activity, and inactivity, there was no relation between intake of snack foods and subsequent changes in BMI z-score among the boys (beta=-0.004), but snack foods had a weak inverse association (beta=-0.007, P<0.05) with weight change among the girls. However, the results were confounded by dieting status, which had a significant positive independent association with BMI change. After controlling for dieting status and whether the mother was overweight, the association between servings per day of snack foods and subsequent changes in BMI z-score were not significant in either gender. DISCUSSION: Our results suggest that although snack foods may have low nutritional value, they were not an important independent determinant of weight gain among children and adolescents.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1999

The snack is critical for the blood glucose profile during treatment with regular insulin preprandially.

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate how a snack influences the blood glucose profile during treatment with preprandial regular human insulin. DESIGN: In a randomized study a mid-morning snack either was or was not served. Insulin was given 30 min before the usual breakfast of the patients. Plasma free insulin and blood glucose were repeatedly determined for 5 h. SETTING: Outpatient clinic at a university hospital. SUBJECTS: Twenty patients with type 1 diabetes treated with multiple injections of regular insulin (Actrapid) and eight non-diabetic subjects. INTERVENTIONS: A mid-morning snack either was or was not served 2 h after the usual morning insulin injection. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: A difference in the blood glucose profile after a mid-morning snack. RESULTS: With a snack there was no difference in blood glucose fasting and at 12.30 h, whilst without a snack there was a decrease of almost 4 mmol L-1, several patients experienced low blood glucose and three had hypoglycaemia. An extended peak of free insulin was reached 30 min after the insulin injection with a slow decrease to the fasting level after 5 h. After the insulin injection a significant decrease in blood glucose occurred within 30-45 min. CONCLUSIONS: A snack 2 h after the insulin injection results in a smoother blood glucose profile and reduces the risk of hypoglycaemia in patients with type 1 diabetes treated with preprandial regular human insulin. Furthermore, the recommended interval of 30 min between insulin injection and a meal may be too long.

Adult↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Effect of a post-dinner snack and partial meal replacement program on weight loss.

The objectives of this study were to examine whether providing a structured post-dinner snack would enhance weight loss among obese night snackers participating in a novel partial meal replacement (PMR) program and to examine the efficacy of that program. Sixty adults (age 18-65 years; body mass index >or=30 kg/m2), 29 randomized to the 'post-dinner snack' and 32 to the 'no snack' groups, completed the 8-week program. Both groups showed improvements in weight (-4.23 kg, P < 0.0001), body mass index (-1.48 kg/m2, P < 0.0001), body fat (-1.36%, P < 00.0001), waist circumference (-6.40 cm, P < 0.0001), and high-density lipoprotein-cholesterol (-2.72 mmol/l, P < 0.01), and on a night snacking question (-1.31, P < 0.0001). The 'post-dinner snack' group did not show significantly greater weight loss outcomes than the 'no snack' group either before or after taking compliance into consideration. Providing a structured post-dinner snack along with a PMR program did not enhance weight loss treatment outcomes; however, the PMR program produced beneficial weight loss changes for obese night snackers.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2000

Effects of macronutrient content and energy density of snacks consumed in a satiety state on the onset of the next meal.

We examined the effects of nutrient composition of a 1 MJ afternoon snack, consumed in a satiety state, on the spontaneous onset of the next meal in 11 young male subjects deprived of any temporal cues. All subjects attended four experimental sessions scheduled 2 weeks apart. The first, baseline, session served to establish: (1) the subjects' ad libitum lunch intake, (2) the latency of the spontaneous request for dinner following lunch, (3) ad libitum food intake at dinner. Lunches provided during the next three sessions were based on baseline lunch intakes. During the following three sessions, conducted in counterbalanced order, subjects were given a high-fat (58% of energy from fat), a high-protein (77%) or a high-carbohydrate (84%) snack to be consumed 240 min after the beginning of lunch. Latency to dinner and the amount of energy consumed at dinner were two dependent variables. Consumption of a high-protein snack delayed the request for dinner by 60 min. In contrast, high-fat snack delayed dinner request by 25 min, whereas high-carbohydrate snack delayed dinner request by 34 min. Snack composition had no impact on energy or macronutrient intakes during dinner.

Adult↗

PubMed1985

Modifying the snack food consumption patterns of inner city high school students: the Great Sensations Study.

The Great Sensations Program is a nutrition-education project developed for high school students. It was designed to (a) decrease students' consumption of salty snacks and (b) increase students' consumption of fresh fruit snacks. The overall programs were designed following principles of social learning: informative instruction, participatory classroom activities, personal goal setting, feedback, and reinforcement. The program was delivered in six lessons during regular health-education classes. A parental involvement program consisted of mailers and telephone calls to parents to teach them to encourage changes in student snacking habits. A schoolwide program was designed to provide out-of-class peer support for student modifications in salty snack foods. The program was evaluated in one high school using a 2 X 2 design. A second high school served as a no-treatment control. Program assessments were made at both schools before and after the classes, at the end of the school year, and the following fall the next school year following summer vacation. The schoolwide media program was effective in decreasing consumption of salty snack foods and in increasing consumption of target snack foods. However, only those students receiving classroom instruction maintained those changes until the end of the school year. No changes were maintained across summer vacation. These outcomes suggest that school programs developed using principles of social learning may be effective in facilitating important behavior changes at home and at school.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2006

Effect of an afternoon confectionery snack on cognitive processes critical to learning.

Two experiments examined how an afternoon confectionery snack affects a variety of cognitive processes critical to learning. For Experiment 1, thirty-eight male undergraduates completed a dual learning task where the primary task involved learning either a map or stories and the secondary task required monitoring a radio broadcast for a specific word category. Results showed that for map learning, participants who consumed the confectionery snack performed better on the primary task. They correctly placed more country names and left fewer blanks on a map during long-term recall. However, on the secondary attention task, participants who consumed the confectionery snack had a lower hit rate. The confectionary snack did not affect story memory performance. In Experiment 2, 38 boys, aged 9-11 years, participated in a similar, age appropriate task. Results showed that boys who had consumed the confectionery snack correctly placed more names and left fewer blanks on a map in both short-term and long-term recall. In contrast with Experiment 1, performance on the secondary task was better after confectionary consumption. However, when tested on a separate vigilance attention task, children who consumed the placebo performed better. Overall results indicate that a confectionery snack, ingested in the afternoon, generally improves spatial memory, but has a mixed effect on attention performance.

Adolescent↗

PubMedDate not supplied

The influence of breakfast and a snack on psychological functioning.

Although there are reports that breakfast influences both mood and memory, there has been no attempt to consider whether a subsequent snack is beneficial. One hundred and fifty young female adults either fasted or consumed breakfasts of either 10 or 50 g of carbohydrate (corn flakes). Half received a further 25 g of carbohydrate in the form of corn flakes after 1 1/2 h (snack). Predictably, those who ate breakfast, and/or a snack, reported feeling less hungry. The larger the caloric intake, the less subjects reported hunger. Those who consumed a snack reported a better mood. Eating a larger breakfast was associated with poorer mood later in the morning, an effect reversed by eating a snack. Memory for the word lists was not influenced by eating breakfast, however, 20 but not 60 min after a midmorning snack, more words were recalled. Those who had eaten breakfast, as opposed to fasting, did, however, spend longer trying to recall the words. This finding was interpreted as evidence that eating breakfast was associated with better motivation. On a number of occasions, better memory was associated with lower blood glucose levels. These findings support previous observations that better glucose tolerance was associated with better memory.

Adult↗

PubMed2002

Dietary restraint and stress-induced snacking in youth.

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether dietary restraint modifies stress-induced eating in youth. RESEARCH METHODS AND PROCEDURES: Snacking was measured in boys (9.5 +/- 0.3 years) and girls (9.0 +/- 0.3 years), with and without dietary restraint, across a control day after reading children's magazines and/or coloring, and on a stress day after giving a videotaped speech, with order of conditions counterbalanced. Children were divided into four groups based on dietary restraint and changes in perceived stress: low-restraint/low-reactive (n = 9), low-restraint/high-reactive (n = 13), high-restraint/low-reactive (n = 10), and high-restraint/high-reactive (n = 8). Body composition was estimated by skinfolds. RESULTS: Energy intake of snack foods was influenced differently by dietary restraint and stress reactivity in the stress and control conditions (p < 0.01). After being stressed, low-restraint/low-reactive children ate fewer snacks and high-restraint/high-reactive children ate more snacks compared with the control condition. After covarying for percentage of body fat, the interactions remained (p < 0.01). Girls ate less than boys (p < 0.001), but sex did not influence eating in control and stress conditions. DISCUSSION: Dietary restraint occurs in children and may influence the effect of stress on eating. Interpersonal stress decreases snacking in low dietary restrained youth but increases snacking in high dietary restrained children, perhaps because of stress-induced disinhibition.

Body Mass Index↗

PubMed2003

Snacking patterns influence energy and nutrient intakes but not body mass index.

OBJECTIVE: To study dietary intake and body mass index (BMI) patterns among US adults, stratified by snacking patterns. DESIGN: The 1994-1996 Continuing Survey of Food Intakes by Individuals (CSFII) provided the study sample. Snacking episodes were defined as a 'food and/or beverage break', and subjects were classified as morning, afternoon, evening, multiple or never snackers. SUBJECTS/SETTING: Our study included data from 1756 men and 1511 women who provided two nonconsecutive, multiple-pass 24-h dietary recalls. STATISTICAL ANALYSES: Mean values of each subject's two 24-h recalls were used for analyses, and data were analysed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) for Windows and SUDAAN. RESULTS: Compared with women, men were more likely to be evening, multiple or never snackers. Male multiple snackers had significantly higher energy intakes than did afternoon and never snackers, whereas female multiple snackers had higher energy intakes than did morning, evening and never snackers. At the same time, male and female multiple snackers had more prudent energy-adjusted intakes of protein, cholesterol, calcium and sodium. Coffee, cola, milk, ice cream and fruits were among the most frequently consumed snacks by men and women. The BMI did not differ significantly across snacker categories. CONCLUSIONS: These data indicate that snacking patterns have some effects on energy and nutrient intakes but not on BMI. Snack food choices remain a concern, especially beverages, including those that are sweetened. Vegetables and fruits as snacks should be encouraged.

Adult↗

PubMed1984

Great Sensations: a program to encourage heart healthy snacking by high school students.

The Great Sensations program consisted of three interrelated educational strategies--classroom instruction, parent outreach, and media campaign. These strategies were designed to teach inner-city high school students about salt and high blood pressure, and to encourage them to eat more low-salt snacks and fewer high-salt snacks. Eight classes at the experimental school were randomly assigned to class instruction or parent outreach in a factoral design. All students in the experimental school were exposed to the media campaign. Students at a nearby high school served as the comparison group. All but a few of the 490 students at the two schools were black. Students who received the classroom instruction reported lower Salty Snack selection and higher Target Snack selection at posttest and eight-week follow-up. Students receiving media only reported lower Salty Snack selection at posttest but this condition returned to baseline by eight weeks. The control group reported little change in snack selection at posttest and eight weeks. After six months, program effects were no longer evident for either experimental group.

Diet, Sodium-Restricted↗

PubMed2005

The roles of meal, snack, and daily total food and beverage exposures on caries experience in young children.

OBJECTIVES: This study describes associations among caries experience and meal, snack and daily total exposures to beverages and foods in children. METHODS: Subjects (n = 634) were members of the Iowa Fluoride Study. Beverage and food exposures were abstracted from 3-day diaries at 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 years and calculated for 1-5 years. Eating events were defined as 30-minute intervals and categorized as meals or snacks based on time of consumption and nature of the foods. Beverage and food exposures were categorized by carbohydrate content. Dental examinations were conducted at 4.5-6.8 years; caries experience was dichotomized (any vs. none). Logistic regression models were developed to determine if caries experience differed for the fourth vs. first quartile of exposure after adjustment for age at dental exam and fluoride intake. RESULTS: Higher snack (1, 2, 3, 4, 1-5 years) and daily total (2, 3, 4, 1-5 years) eating events increased caries risk (P < 0.05). Higher exposures to 100% juice at snacks (2 years) and soda pop at meals (2, 1-5 years), snacks (2, 3, 4, 1-5 years) and daily total (2, 3, 4, 1-5 years) increased caries risk (P < 0.05). Higher exposures to food sugars (3, 1-5 years) and starches (4, 5, 1-5 years) at meals decreased caries risk, while higher exposures to sugars (4, 1-5 years) at snacks increased caries risk (P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Dietary methods used to investigate diet-caries relationships can influence the outcome. The cariogenicity of food, but not beverages, is associated with the timing of exposure.

Beverages↗

PubMed2006

Snack consumption in normal and undernourished preschool children in Northeastern Thailand.

OBJECTIVE: A cross-sectional study was conducted in a rural area of the Northeastern region in Thailand. The study aimed to investigate factors influencing nutritional status and to explore the pattern of snack consumption. MATERIAL AND METHOD: Subjects were 85 normal and 85 undernourished pre-school children with ages ranging from 2-6 years old. The authors collected demographic data including socio-economic status and family background by using an interview administered questionnaire. A 5-day food record was used to evaluate nutritional intake. RESULTS: The results indicated that children in both groups preferred crispy snacks between breakfast and lunch. Energy, protein, fat, carbohydrate, calcium and sodium intake derived from snacks and overall intake were significantly lower in undernourished children than those in normal children (p-value < 0.01). The results indicated that energy intake in pre-school malnourished children (2-3 years) as percentage of recommended daily allowance was lower than the recommended level. High sodium intake was observed in the presented study children and the results supported the observation that snack foods contribute to excessive sodium intake. CONCLUSION: The present results have highlighted the impact of snack consumption. Programmes aimed at increasing nutritional knowledge and information for parents and guardians are important. Furthermore, promotion of nutritious snack consumption among children is important.

Child↗