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PubMedDate not supplied

Age differences between minors who give birth and their adult partners.

The role of adult men in adolescent childbearing has received heightened attention in recent years, and a new policy efforts have focused on statutory rape laws as a way to reduce adolescent childbearing. Analyses of the 1988 National Maternal and Infant Health Survey indicate, however, that these policies would not apply to most teenage births. Among mothers aged 15-17 who had a child in 1988, 27% had a partner at least five years older than themselves. In addition, since 23% of minors with older partners were married at the time of the infant's birth, 21% of babies born to unmarried minors were fathered by substantially older men. While births to young mothers and older men raise social concerns, these births make up a small share of all teenage childbearing: Only 8% of all births to 15-19-year-olds are to unmarried minors with a partner five or more years older.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1986

Adolescent unwed prospective fathers: readiness for fatherhood and behaviors toward the mother and the expected infant.

Despite the increased emphasis on assessing and meeting the needs of unmarried pregnant adolescents, less than adequate attention has been directed toward understanding unwed adolescent prospective fathers who frequently are the mates of pregnant teenagers. As part of a prenatal education intervention study, 28 unmarried adolescent fathers responded to a questionnaire containing items about their readiness for fatherhood, antepartal behavioral interactions, and projected postpartal behaviors with their pregnant adolescent partners, as well as their projected behaviors with their infants. The adolescent males reported that initially they either were definitely unready for paternity (75%) or were undecided about readiness for fatherhood (21%). However, as pregnancy advanced beyond the second trimester, only 57% of the respondents did not want to become fathers. To a significant extent, those who did not were least likely to engage in behaviors supportive of their mate's health antepartally, or to indicate a desire to care for and interact with their expected infant. In addition, they tended to project lower levels of postnatal involvement with the adolescent mothers of their children as compared to those males who were more accepting of their pending fatherhood. Moreover, males who had maintained long prepregnancy relationships with their mates tended to be more supportive of them prenatally, and to perceive themselves as maintaining close relationships with both the mothers and infants after delivery. Finally, 86% of the adolescent fathers planned to work to contribute to the support of their infants. The data demonstrate that unreadiness for fatherhood may be associated with responsible as well as irresponsible behaviors. Accordingly, these data are interpreted as having implications for the establishment of programs and policies which focus on the adolescent male population in order to interdict the high rate of unwed adolescent pregnancy.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMed1998

Experiences of African American adolescent fathers.

Social and cultural factors influence the experience of fatherhood. This descriptive focus-group study describes the lived experience of fatherhood from the perspectives of 5 unmarried, low-income, African American adolescent fathers in a Midwestern urban area. Naturalistic inquiry approach guided the study. Seven themes of fatherhood emerged: barriers to fatherhood, value of fatherhood, introduction to fatherhood, competencies of fatherhood, role-set relationships, social norms of fatherhood, and father-child contact. This study suggests that nurses should support the involvement of adolescent fathers with their children. Future study may determine the influence of adult female family members on the decisions of adolescent fathers to remain involved with their children.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1998

Assessing sex differences in vulnerability among employed parents: the importance of marital status.

Despite earlier claims that women are generally more vulnerable than men to stressors, recent research on mental health indicates that sex differences in vulnerability are highly specific and depend on the type of stressor and disorder considered. My paper extends previous work on this topic by suggesting that gender variation in stress-reactivity is also contingent upon people's marital status. To illustrate the importance of marital status for differential vulnerability, my study assesses sex differences in the impact of work and family role strains on depression and alcohol use-abuse among married and unmarried employed parents who participated in the second wave of the National Survey of Households and Families (N = 2937). My analyses indicate that mothers generally are not more vulnerable than fathers, but that sex differences in parents' response to stress depend on the type of stressor and disorder involved. My analyses also reveal significant marital status contingencies in the effects of stress on mothers' compared to fathers' symptoms of distress. Finally, although married and unmarried mothers do not differ in their response to work or family stress, my analyses show that parental strain is more harmful to unmarried than married fathers. Overall, my research identifies an important, though previously overlooked, factor influencing sex differences in vulnerability and further specifies the types of stressors which are etiologically important for married and unmarried mothers and fathers. I interpret findings from the contextual approach to differential vulnerability, arguing that the circumstances in which stressors occur influence their meaning, emotional significance, and psychological impact.

Adult↗
PubMed1991

Internalization of the absent father.

The analysis of a woman, born of an unmarried mother, is presented. Her mental representation of the fantasized father was derived partly from her own wishes and fears, partly from what she was told by her mother, and partly from what she discovered through her own observations and enquiries. The revival in the transference of the split-off parts of her self and of the related bipolarity in her representation of the absent father, the search for their origin in her childhood, the discussion of their operation in her present and past relationships, and the working through of her resistances to change, enabled her to integrate the split-off parts of her self, and to maintain stable relationships. The child's need to internalize a father, whether or not the latter exists in reality, raises the question whether human offspring have an innate propensity to relate to a father, or a father introject, even when the latter is derived from fantasy alone.

Adult↗
PubMed1982

Teenage pregnancy and parenthood: outcomes for mother and child.

This study reports some general health and related outcomes for all women ages 14, 15, and 16 and their children delivered at our hospital in 1976. These outcomes are contrasted with 100 women ages 20-30 years and their children born the same year. Data were collected by retrospective chart review. For the teenage group, 70% were unmarried, most of the fathers were 4-5 years older than the teenaged mother, most teen mothers were living with their parents, and all had incomes in the poverty range. A comparison of black and white teenaged mothers showed that: (1) 14-15-year-old blacks had proportionally more pregnancies than whites, (2) the first prenatal visit was later for blacks, and (3) children of the white teenagers had more acute illness visits during the 2-yr follow up. When the age of the teenage mother is considered, the 1-min Apgar scores for the children of 14-year olds were lower and the school drop out rate was higher with increasing maternal age. In comparing the teen to the 20-30-year-old group, the only finding was higher complication rate for pregnancy and delivery for the teen group. The physical growth of all children was normal. These results must be interpreted with caution, because of missing data for some variables; however, this data should be of some use in planning future research and intervention programs.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1977

The unwed pregnant teenager and her male relationship.

A group of 100 primiparas, 17 years of age and younger, were interviewed one to three days postpartum. From these interviews, the quality of the relationship between the patient and the father of the newborn child was scored in three categories. Contrary to popular opinion about illegitimacy, it was found that in the majority of cases a good, continuing relationship was maintained throughout the pregnancy, despite the fact that 97% of the patients were unmarried. Fully 84% of the fathers of the unborn children has ongoing contacts with the patients; 68% of the fathers reported that they liked the idea of having the baby, whereas only 9% disliked the pregnancies. The relationship scores were compared with the occurrence of complications in the patient's labor and delivery. Statistical analyses revealed that the relationship between the teenage obstetric patient and the father of her child was not associated with the occurrence of complications in the patient's labor and delivery. However, trends indicate a possible association between these two variables.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1998

Children's socialization experiences and functioning in single-mother households: the importance of fathers and other men.

This research considers the importance of biological fathers and other men for children in unmarried-mother families. One hundred and eleven third- and fourth-grade children reported on the provision by fathers and other men of various social, emotional, and disciplinary experiences. Factor analysis revealed 2 relational dimensions among these social experiences--warmth and control. Results of multivariate regression analyses indicated that fathers' provision of warmth and control related to better academic achievement for children, and the provision of control from nonpaternal men predicted fewer teacher-rated behavior problems in school and more prosocial behaviors toward peers. These relations were moderated by children's gender, race, and maternal marital history. Girls and Black children were more positively affected by relations with fathers and father figures than were boys and White children, and divorced fathers were more influential in children's achievement than never-married fathers. Implications of the findings for social policy and intervention efforts are discussed.

Achievement↗
PubMed1996

Estimating nonparticipation bias in a longitudinal study of bereavement.

Nonparticipants in epidemiological studies may differ in important respects from participants but the magnitude of this potential bias is rarely quantified. This study estimates the effect of nonparticipation on estimates of mental health problems following stillbirth, neonatal death or sudden infant death syndrome. Of 805 families approached, 512 (64 per cent) were recruited, of whom 77 per cent of mothers and 71 per cent of fathers completed four study interviews. Younger, unmarried, unemployed parents without private health insurance were less often recruited, and even if recruited, were less likely to complete the interview. By evaluating several possible scenarios, we estimated that had mothers lost to follow-up remained in the study, anxiety rates would have varied by no more than +/-4 per cent. Relative risks associated with bereaved-control comparisons would have differed little from the observed estimate of 2.33. Estimating the effects of initial nonresponse is more difficult but the adoption of a worst-case scenario produced a relative risk of 3.47. Despite systematic nonparticipation suggestive of social disadvantage, attrition-related bias may have had only a modest effect on anxiety and depression rate estimates. However, this may not be the case when sample loss is high, when associations between attrition and outcome are strong, and when attrition-related behaviour differs across comparison groups.

Adult↗
PubMed2000

[Prenatal care in the border city of Tijuana, Mexico].

This study was intended to explore the conditions under which prenatal care is delivered in the border city of Tijuana, Baja California, Mexico, and to assess the possible associations between that care and neonatal results in terms of birthweight, health of the neonate, and prematurity. Seven hospitals serving persons from different socioeconomic strata were chosen, and between December 1993 and March 1994 interviews were conducted with 279 women who were in the first 24 to 48 hours of puerperium. During the interviews data were collected on socioeconomic level; the mothers' knowledge, attitudes, and practices concerning obstetric health; the mothers' perceptions of access to prenatal care; the quality of prenatal care visits (evaluated in terms of having blood and urine tested and weight and blood pressure measured); and the gynecological and obstetric and health history of the mother. A database was created using the SPSS statistics software package. Possible associations were explored, with prenatal care as the independent variable and various dependent variables, by means of contingency tables and a two-tailed Fisher's exact test. None of the neonates was premature, ill, or had a birthweight of < or = 2,500 g. For this reason it was decided to divide the variable corresponding to birthweight into two groupings, < or = 3,000 g and > 3,000 g. A significant (P < 0.00038) relationship was found between a lack of prenatal care and low birthweight. In addition, a lack of prenatal care was associated with: low family income; the mother's financial dependence on the father; the mother being in an unmarried relationship; little communication with the partner; having no medical insurance; an unwanted pregnancy; and giving delivery at the General Hospital. Out of the total sample of 279 women, 15 (5.4%) had received no prenatal care. None of these 15 women reported they had encountered difficulties that prevented them from obtaining prenatal care, but only 7 of those women answered that question. The prenatal care was of good quality in 190 of the cases (68%). Both the number and the timing of the prenatal visits were adequate in 142 of the cases (50%). The mother's having worked during pregnancy or before had a positive predictive value in terms of utilization of prenatal care services. Additional studies are needed to evaluate the possible relationship between domestic violence and the lack of prenatal care or a delay in seeking such care.

Apgar Score↗
PubMed1983

Factors discriminating pregnancy resolution decisions of unmarried adolescents.

Pregnancy resolution decisions of unmarried adolescents were studied with the use of an expected utility decision model that included psychological, background, and economic variables. Discriminant function analysis of the decision to have an abortion or to deliver the child indicated that psychological, background, and economic variables each made significant contributions to the successful classification of teenagers (approximately 87.5% of the women were classified correctly). A four-item Abortion Approval Index, the women's perception of the prospective fathers' abortion opinion, personal knowledge of other unmarried teenagers who delivered, self-reported grade average, and receipt of state financial aid in the form of AFDC or Medicaid payments were the most powerful discriminators. For adolescents who chose to deliver, a second discriminant function indicated that only one economic factor--receipt of state financial aid--successfully discriminated those who married from those who became single mothers (approximately 72% of the women were classified correctly). Results are discussed in terms of possible decision strategies and sequences used by adolescents and the value of using a decision framework that incorporates psychological, background, and economic factors.

Abortion, Induced↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Fathers' support to mothers of medically fragile infants.

OBJECTIVE: To examine mothers' perceptions of support from fathers over the 1st year after birth of a medically fragile infant. DESIGN: A descriptive, correlation design based on an ecologic systems view of the family. It was hypothesized that the levels of paternal support would be influenced by factors within the two subsystems: the mother-father system (marital status) and the child subsystem (health and gender). SETTING: A tertiary care children's hospital. PARTICIPANTS: Sixty-four mothers of medically fragile term and preterm infants, who were married or living with the father. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: The Stress Support Scale assessed maternal perceptions of helpfulness and satisfaction with paternal support at enrollment, after discharge, and around 1 year of age. RESULTS: Mothers reported high levels of help from fathers at enrollment. Married mothers did not differ from unmarried mothers in their perceptions of helpfulness of support but were more satisfied with support. Mothers of female infants received more help from fathers than mothers of male infants, and this difference increased over time. However, mothers of female infants were not more satisfied with paternal support. Neither number of technologies nor birthweight related the maternal perceptions of paternal support. CONCLUSIONS: Family systems factors were more significant in maternal perceptions of paternal support than the health status of the infant.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMed1995

Low birth weight in Spain associated with sociodemographic factors.

STUDY OBJECTIVE: To describe the effect of different social and demographic characteristics on low birth weight (LBW) (less than 2500 g) in Spain, in both preterm (less than 37 weeks' gestation) and term infants (between 37 and 42 weeks' gestation). DESIGN: The study used data obtained from the Spanish birth registry. SETTING: The study was based on those live born infants registered in 1988 from provinces where the birthweight details were completed in at least 99.5% of the birth registration records. PARTICIPANTS: A total of 1332 preterm LBW infants, 1292 term LBW infants, and 38,967 controls were included in the study. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: The odds ratio (OR) calculated by logistic regression was used as the measure of association between LBW and the sociodemographic variables. The highest ORs of preterm LBW were found in mothers younger than 20 years (1.32; 95% CI 0.98, 1.77) and older than 34 years (1.28; 95% CI 1.04, 1.59), in unmarried mothers (1.68; 95% CI 1.36, 2.07), and in fathers with manual occupations (1.26; 95% CI 1.08, 1.46). In term, live born infants the highest ORs were found in adolescent mothers (1.63; 95% CI 1.25, 2.14), in first born live born infants (1.38; 95% CI 1.09, 1.74) or the fourth born or more (1.28; 95% CI 0.91, 1.80), in unmarried mothers (1.55; 95% CI 1.27, 1.90), in housewives (1.13; 95% CI 0.99, 1.29), and in fathers with manual occupations (1.21; 95% CI 1.04, 1.42). CONCLUSIONS: The results have allowed documentation of the risk of preterm and term LBW in various age and social groups in Spain.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1992

Marital status: association with social and economic circumstances, psychological state and outcomes of pregnancy.

We examined the association of marital status with economic, social and psychological factors and with the outcomes of pregnancy (defined as onset of labour, type of delivery, live and still births and birthweight). The study population was 1431 white women consecutively booking for antenatal care. Birth registrations were inspected. Of 278 women who were unmarried during pregnancy, 61 per cent were cohabiting, 26 per cent were living with adults other than the father and 13 per cent were living alone. Compared with the married women, unmarried women overall were, on average, younger, less educated, of lower social class, in poorer economic circumstances, more dependent on state support and less satisfied with their living arrangements. Irrespective of age and social class, they were less likely to have planned the pregnancy, more likely to smoke and drink, to book later for antenatal care and to miss more appointments. In general, unmarried women were more likely to have some indication of depression and to experience more serious life events during the pregnancy. Controlling for age and social class, the categories 'married', 'cohabiting' and 'on their own' showed significant trends from best to worst. Those living with adults other than the father showed intermediate results. There were no significant effects of marital status, controlled for age and social class, and associated social, economic and psychological circumstances on outcomes of pregnancy. Forty-one per cent of births to women on their own, 35 per cent to women living with other adults and 11 per cent to women cohabiting during pregnancy were registered by only one parent.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Adolescent↗
PubMed1985

Prepubertal testicular torsion: subsequent fertility.

Eighteen patients were reviewed 7 to 23 years after prolonged unilateral testicular torsion. They had all undergone surgical untwisting with replacement of the nonviable testis in the scrotum during prepubertal period. Five patients were now married and had fathered one or more children. Thirteen patients were unmarried. There was absence of testis on the affected side in 14 of 18 patients. Four patients had severe testicular atrophy on the affected side (testicular volume less than 1 mL). The contralateral side showed either a normal testicular volume or a compensatory hypertrophy (testicular volume greater than 25 mL). Seminal analysis was done in 13 unmarried men and it was completely normal in 10 patients. Two patients had low sperm density but normal semen volume and motility. One patient had pathologic semen analysis. IgG and IgA specific mixed agglutination reaction (MAR) test did not show evidence of sperm autoantibodies in any patient. Our clinical experience shows that, after prepubertal torsion, the contralateral testis undergoes normal development. Furthermore, torsion in the prepubertal male does not cause autosensitization and diminished fertility in adult life.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2003

Revised birth and fertility rates for the United States, 2000 and 2001.

OBJECTIVES: This report presents revised birth and fertility rates for 2000 and 2001, based on populations consistent with the April 1, 2000, census. Rates are presented by age, race, and Hispanic origin of mother; by age, race, and Hispanic origin of mother for unmarried women; and by age and race of father. To put the rates for 2000 and 2001 into context, rates are also shown for 1990. METHODS: Populations were produced for the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's National Center for Health Statistics under a collaborative arrangement with the U.S. Census Bureau. The populations reflect the results of the 2000 census. This census allowed people to report more than one race for themselves and their household members, and also separated the category for Asian or Pacific Islander persons into two groups (Asian; Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander). These changes reflected the Office of Management and Budgets 1997 revisions to the standards for the classification of Federal data on race and ethnicity. Because only one race is currently reported in birth certificate data, the 2000 census populations were "bridged" to the single race categories specified in the Office of Management and Budget's 1977 guidelines for race and ethnic statistics in Federal reporting, which are still in use in the collection of vital statistics data. RESULTS: Population-based birth and fertility rates for 2000 and 2001, based on the 2000 census, are somewhat lower for Hispanics (11 percent for the fertility rate in 2001) and Asian or Pacific Islanders (7 percent) and considerably lower for American Indians (18 percent) than the rates previously published based on populations projected from the 1990 census. Rates for most other population subgroups differ little from those previously published. Because of these patterns, the differentials in fertility among population subgroups remain, but are somewhat reduced. Between 1990 and 2001, teenage birth rates declined, rates for women in their twenties changed little, and rates for women in their thirties and forties rose.

Adolescent↗