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PubMed2000

[Morphology and anatomy of the fruit development of Ocotea puberula (Rich.) Nees and Nectandra megapotamica (Spreng.) Mez (Lauraceae)].

The morphology and anatomy of the fruit development of Ocotee puberula (Rich.) Nees and Nectandra megapotamica (Spreng.) Mez (Lauraceae) was studied in flowers and fruits collected in secondary forests of Maringa, Parana State, Brazil. The fruits of the species are drupes, with epidermic exocarp, parenchymatous mesocarp and endocarp which consists of macrosclereids. The origin of endocarp is the internal epidermis of ovary. The exalbuminous seeds develop from the anatropous ovules and they have testa and tegmen with parenchymatous cells frequently compressed. In the hilum region these teguments show sciereids in radial arrangement. The straight embryo has thick cotyledons which contain reserve substances such as starch and oil. The plumule and hypocotyl-radicle axis are reduced.

Brazil↗
PubMed2001

Fruit development is actively restricted in the absence of fertilization in Arabidopsis.

Flowering plants usually require fertilization to form fruit and seed and to initiate floral organ abscission in structures that do not contribute to the fruit. An Arabidopsis mutant that initiates seedless fruit without fertilization (fwf) or parthenocarpy was isolated and characterized to understand the factors regulating the transition between the mature flower and the initiation of seed and fruit development. The fwf mutant is fertile and has normal plant growth and stature. It sets fertile seed following self-pollination and fertilization needs to be prevented to observe parthenocarpy. The initiation of parthenocarpic siliques (fruit) was found to be dependent upon carpel valve identity conferred by FRUITFULL but was independent of the perception of gibberellic acid, shown to stimulate parthenocarpy in Arabidopsis following exogenous application. The recessive nature of fwf is consistent with the involvement of FWF in processes that inhibit fruit growth and differentiation in the absence of fertilization. The enhanced cell division and expansion in the silique mesocarp layer, and increased lateral vascular bundle development imply FWF has roles also in modulating silique growth post-fertilization. Parthenocarpy was inhibited by the presence of other floral organs suggesting that both functional FWF activity and inter-organ communication act in concert to prevent fruit initiation in the absence of fertilization.

Arabidopsis↗
PubMed1984

Auxin-regulated polypeptide changes at different stages of strawberry fruit development.

The pattern of polypeptides at different stages of strawberry (Fragaria ananassa Duch. cv Ozark Beauty) fruit development was studied by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. An 81,000-dalton polypeptide appeared between 5 and 10 days after pollination. Polypeptides with molecular weights of 76,000 and 37,000 daltons were formed after 10 days. The control exerted by auxin in the stage-specific formation of polypeptides was investigated by stopping fruit growth after removing the achenes and reinitiating fruit growth by the application of a synthetic auxin, alpha-naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA). When the achenes were removed from the 5- and 10-day-old fruits, the fruits failed to grow, the 81,000 dalton polypeptide was not formed between 5 and 10 days, and the 76,000- and 37,000-dalton polypeptides were not formed between 10 and 20 days. Application of NAA to fruits deprived of auxin by removal of achenes resulted in the resumption of growth and also in the appearance of these polypeptides. Removal of achenes of the 5- or 10-day-old fruits and growing them without auxin resulted in the formation of 52,000- and 57,000-dalton polypeptides. These two polypeptides were not formed when NAA was applied to fruits after removal of achenes. Supply of NAA to auxin-deprived fruits 5 days after removal of achenes resulted in resumption of growth and also in the disappearance of these two polypeptides, pointing out their possible relation to the inhibition of fruit growth.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1985

5'-Methylthioadenosine Nucleosidase and 5-Methylthioribose Kinase Activities and Ethylene Production during Tomato Fruit Development and Ripening.

5'-Methylthioadenosine (MTA) nucleosidase and 5-methylthioribose (MTR) kinase activities were measured in crude extracts of tomato fruits (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill cv Rutgers) during fruit development and ripening. The highest activity of MTA nucleosidase (1.2 nanomoles per milligram protein per minute) was observed in small green fruits. The activity decreased during ripening; at the overripe stage only 6.5% of the peak activity remained. MTR kinase activity was low at the small green stage and increased thereafter until it reached peak activity at the breaker stage (0.7 nanomoles per milligram protein per minute) followed by a sharp decline at the later stages of fruit ripening. 1-Amino-cyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC) levels peaked at the red stage, while ethylene reached its highest level at the light-red stage. Several analogs of MTA and MTR were tested as both enzyme and ethylene inhibitors. Of the MTA analogs examined for their ability to inhibit MTA nucleosidase, 5'-chloroformycin reduced enzyme activity 89%, whereas 5'-chloroadenosine, 5'-isobutylthioadenosine, 5'-isopropylthioadenosine, and 5'-ethylthioadenosine inhibited the reaction with MTA by about 40%. 5'-Chloroformycin and 5'-chloroadenosine inhibited ethylene production over a period of 24 hours by about 64 and 42%, respectively. Other analogs of MTA were not effective inhibitors of ethylene production, whereas aminoethoxyvinylglycine showed a 34% inhibition over the same period of time. Of the MTR analogs tested, 5-isobutylthioribose was the most effective inhibitor of both MTR-kinase (41%) and ethylene production (35%).

Journal Article↗
PubMed2002

Flavonol synthase gene expression during citrus fruit development.

We isolated a cDNA clone (CitFLS) encoding flavonol synthase (FLS) from the satsuma mandarin (Citrus unshiu Marc.) fruit and investigated the steady state of CitFLS RNA expression during the fruit development. The CitFLS was 1274 bp long, encoded 335 amino acid residues, and belonged to a family of 2-oxoglutarate-dependent dioxygenases. The level of CitFLS transcript was higher in the young leaves than in the old leaves, and it was high at the early developmental stage and low at the mature stage in the juice sacs/segment epidermis (edible part). On the other hand, the CitFLS transcript increased in the peel during fruit maturation. These results indicated that the satsuma mandarin CitFLS was differentially regulated in the developmental stage and in a tissue-specific manner. Additionally, satsuma mandarin peel tissues produced rutin (a flavonol glycoside) from an exogenous dihydroquercetin (taxifolin), indicating the ability of these tissues to produce flavonols.

Journal Article↗
PubMed2004

Putative protease inhibitor gene discovery and transcript profiling during fruit development and leaf damage in grapefruit (Citrus paradisi Macf.).

Seven putative protease inhibitor (PPI) cDNAs, representing four protein families, were isolated from a grapefruit (Citrus paradisi Macf. Cv. Marsh) immature fruit flavedo cDNA library. Cloned open reading frames encoded proteins with similarity to, and protein signatures for: legume Kuntiz inhibitors (lkiL-1, lkiL-2, lkiL-3), potato trypsin inhibitor I (ptiIL-1), serpins (serpL-1), cystatins (cystL-1), and gamma thionins (gthL-1). Response of transcript abundance to fruit development and leaf wounding was determined for all but lkiL-1 using real-time RT-PCR. Immature leaves had the highest transcript levels for all PPIs. The gthL-1 transcript in immature leaves was the most abundant transcript but was absent from healthy mature leaves. In fruit flavedo, transcripts for all PPIs were most abundant in youngest fruit (<15 mm dia. fruit), and declined during development, but displayed different patterns of developmental change. Mechanical or Diaprepes root weevil (DRW) feeding damage to leaves caused a <10-fold reduction or had no effect on transcript level with the exception of gthL-1 which, as a result of damage, increased >50-fold in mature leaves and decreased >1400-fold in immature leaves. This developmental control of transcript response to wounding in a woody perennial is opposite of what has been observed for defensive proteinase inhibitors (PIs) in other plants (typically herbaceous and/or annual plants), where younger leaves typically invoke a higher defensive proteinase inhibitor transcript accumulation than older tissues. Except for gthL-1, the PPI transcripts were minimally responsive or unresponsive to wounding. Changes in PPI transcript levels suggest diverse roles for the products of these genes in citrus, with only gthL-1 responding in a defense-like manner.

Citrus↗
PubMed2003

A model for an early stage of tomato fruit development: cell multiplication and cessation of the cell proliferative activity.

Changes in cell number during the early period of tomato fruit development were analysed by means of a deterministic model of cell multiplication. The period commenced at the seed stage with one theoretical cell undergoing intensive cell division, and ended when the cell number became nearly constant. The model takes into consideration the proliferative activity of the fruit cell population which, a few days before flower anthesis, begins to decrease progressively after each mitotic cycle. Model parameters, namely the time at which proliferative activity diminishes, its rate of decrease and the length of the cell cycle, were estimated by fitting the model to observed cell population dynamics in tomato fruits growing in three different positions on the truss. It is hypothesized that the molecular mechanism responsible for the cessation of mitosis in growing fruits is associated with shortening of telomeric ends of nuclear DNA, as suggested previously for other growing cell populations.

Cell Division↗
PubMed2006

Cytokinins in the perianth, carpels, and developing fruit of Helleborus niger L.

Reproductive development in the Christmas rose (Helleborus niger L.) differs from that in commonly investigated model plants in two important aspects: (i) the perianth develops a photosynthetic system, after fertilization, and persists until seed ripening; and (ii) the ripe seed contains an immature embryo which continues to mature off the mother plant. The possible roles of cytokinins in these processes are investigated here by analysing extracts of the perianth and the carpels/maturing fruit prepared during anthesis and four stages of post-floral development. trans-Zeatin, dihydrozeatin, N6-(Delta2-isopentenyl)adenine, and their ribosides were identified by tandem mass spectrometry. Single ion monitoring in the presence of deuterated internal standards demonstrated the additional presence of the corresponding riboside-5'-monophosphates, O-glucosides, and 9-glucosides, and afforded quantitative data on the whole set of endogenous cytokinins. Fruit cytokinins were mostly localized in the seeds. Their overall concentrations increased dramatically during early seed development and remained high for 6-8 weeks, until shortly before seed ripening (the last time point covered in this work). Overall cytokinin levels in the perianth did not change markedly in the period covered, but the level of N6-(Delta2-isopentenyl)adenine-type cytokinins appeared to increase slightly and transiently during the greening phase. The perianths of unpollinated or depistillated flowers, which survived, but did not pass through the complete greening process, contained significantly less cytokinins than observed in fruit-bearing flowers. This suggests that perianth greening requires defined cytokinin levels and supports the role of the developing fruit in their maintenance.

Cytokinins↗
PubMed2005

Changes in aroma volatile compounds and ethylene production during "Hujingmilu" peach (Prunus persica L.) fruit development.

Changes in ethylene production rate, respiration rate, and aroma volatile composition was determined from the immature to mature stage in "Hujingmilu" peach (Prunus presica) fruit. Flesh firmness, fruit size, ground color of skin, and total soluble solids (TSS), titratable acidity (TA) in juice were analyzed, and ACC, ACC synthase and ACC oxidase activities were measured. With the increase of fruit maturity, fruit size, L* value, and TSS and major reducing sugar contents increased, whereas fruit firmness, skin hue angle (h degrees ), and juice TA and organic acid contents decreased. In immature fruits, a C(6)-aldehydes (trans-2-hexenal) and C(6)-alcohols (cis-3-hexenol) were the major components, corresponding to the low ethylene production and high respiration rates. With increasing of fruit maturity, the C(6)-C(12) lactonic compounds, particularly gamma- and delta-lactones became the dominant volatile constituents, which increased significantly at the climacteric stage. These facts suggest that ethylene production may be involved in the regulation of lactones production in maturing peach fruit. The activity of ACC synthase in the mesocarp declined during the climacteric rise of ethylene. ACC level and ACC oxidase activity in mesocarp were consistent with the onset of ethylene production in fruit. Major aroma volatiles are thought to form in conjunction with the initiation of climacteric rises in respiration and ethylene production. Detection of changes in aroma volatile compound synthesis rate in peach may be useful as index of maturity reflecting the current physiological stage of peach fruit development.

Amino Acid Oxidoreductases↗
PubMed2000

Genetic evidence for somatic haploidization in developing fruit bodies of Armillaria tabescens.

Armillaria spp. have vegetative hyphae with diploid uninucleate cells, but the fruit bodies of many species contain clamped dikaryotic hyphae. Earlier observations suggest that somatic haploidization takes place in developing fruit bodies. To verify this, a uninucleate diploid cell was isolated from each of the 49 mating combinations between single-spore isolates of Armillaria tabescens and they were fruited. Twenty-four isolates produced fruit bodies with at least a partially dikaryotic subhymenium. Dikaryotic hyphae were isolated from fruit-body primordia and homokaryons were obtained by micromanipulation or by protoplasting. Approximately half of the isolates proved to represent recombinant mating types in respect to parent homokaryons, and most of them contained recombinant haploid DNA, based on random-amplified microsatellite markers. The results show that the nuclei in dikaryotic hyphae found in fruit bodies result from somatic haploidization. The mechanism of haploidization remains unclear.

Basidiomycota↗
PubMed2002

Expression of genes involved in anthocyanin biosynthesis in relation to anthocyanin, proanthocyanidin, and flavonol levels during bilberry fruit development.

The production of anthocyanins in fruit tissues is highly controlled at the developmental level. We have studied the expression of flavonoid biosynthesis genes during the development of bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus) fruit in relation to the accumulation of anthocyanins, proanthocyanidins, and flavonols in wild berries and in color mutants of bilberry. The cDNA fragments of five genes from the flavonoid pathway, phenylalanine ammonia-lyase, chalcone synthase, flavanone 3-hydroxylase, dihydroflavonol 4-reductase, and anthocyanidin synthase, were isolated from bilberry using the polymerase chain reaction technique, sequenced, and labeled with a digoxigenin-dUTP label. These homologous probes were used for determining the expression of the flavonoid pathway genes in bilberries. The contents of anthocyanins, proanthocyanidins, and flavonols in ripening bilberries were analyzed with high-performance liquid chromatography-diode array detector and were identified using a mass spectrometry interface. Our results demonstrate a correlation between anthocyanin accumulation and expression of the flavonoid pathway genes during the ripening of berries. At the early stages of berry development, procyanidins and quercetin were the major flavonoids, but the levels decreased dramatically during the progress of ripening. During the later stages of ripening, the content of anthocyanins increased strongly and they were the major flavonoids in the ripe berry. The expression of flavonoid pathway genes in the color mutants of bilberry was reduced. A connection between flavonol and anthocyanin synthesis in bilberry was detected in this study and also in previous data collected from flavonol and anthocyanin analyses from other fruits. In accordance with this, models for the connection between flavonol and anthocyanin syntheses in fruit tissues are presented.

Acyltransferases↗
PubMed1999

Regulation of carotenoid biosynthesis during tomato fruit development: expression of the gene for lycopene epsilon-cyclase is down-regulated during ripening and is elevated in the mutant Delta.

The red colour of tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) fruits is provided by the carotenoid pigment lycopene whose concentration increases dramatically during the ripening process. A single dominant gene, Del, in the tomato mutant Delta changes the fruit colour to orange as a result of accumulation of delta-carotene at the expense of lycopene. The cDNA for lycopene epsilon-cyclase (CrtL-e), which converts lycopene to delta-carotene, was cloned from tomato. The primary structure of CRTL-E is 71% identical to the homologous polypeptide from Arabidopsis and 36% identical to the tomato lycopene beta-cyclase, CRTL-B. The CrtL-e gene was mapped to a single locus on chromosome 12 of the tomato linkage map. This locus co-segregated with the Del gene. In the wild-type tomato, the transcript level of CrtL-e decreases at the 'breaker' stage of ripening to a non-detectable level in the ripe fruit. In contrast, it increases approximately 30-fold during fruit ripening in the Delta plants. The Delta mutation does not affect carotenoid composition nor the mRNA level of CrtL-e in leaves and flowers. These results strongly suggest that the mutation Del is an allele of the gene for epsilon-cyclase. Together with previous data, our results indicate that the primary mechanism that controls lycopene accumulation in tomato fruits is based on the differential regulation of expression of carotenoid biosynthesis genes. During fruit development, the mRNA levels for the lycopene-producing enzymes phytoene synthase (PSY) and phytoene desaturase (PDS) increase, while the mRNA levels of the genes for the lycopene beta- and epsilon-cyclases, which convert lycopene to either beta- or delta-carotene, respectively, decline and completely disappear.

Amino Acid Sequence↗
PubMed2003

Putative PIP1 genes isolated from apple: expression analyses during fruit development and under osmotic stress.

To gain insight into the function of plasma membrane intrinsic protein (PIP) genes in apple, two genes, MdPIP1a and MdPIP1b, were isolated. MdPIP1 expression was in accordance with the volume increase during fruit development, which is a loading process of water and solutes. In addition, the expression of MdPIP1 was up-regulated in the stems by osmotic stress. These results indicate that MdPIP1 may play important roles not only in fruit expansion, but also in maintaining water homeostasis under stress conditions.

Carrier Proteins↗
PubMed1997

Melon ascorbate oxidase: cloning of a multigene family, induction during fruit development and repression by wounding.

A small family of at least four genes encoding melon ascorbate oxidase (AO) has been identified and three members of it have been cloned. Preliminary DNA sequence determination suggested that melon AO genes code for enzymes homologous to ascorbate oxidases from other plants and similar to other multicopper oxidases. We describe detailed molecular studies addressing melon AO expression during organ specific differentiation, fruit development and ripening, and in response to wounding. In particular, AO transcript accumulation was induced in ovaries and the outer mesocarp of mature preclimacteric melon fruits, before the expression of genes encoding the necessary enzymatic activities for ethylene biosynthesis. On the other hand, AO was not expressed in late stages of fruit ripening and was repressed in wounded fruits. The role of ethylene in transcriptional regulation of AO is discussed.

Amino Acid Sequence↗
PubMed2004

Molecular characterization and expression studies during melon fruit development and ripening of L-galactono-1,4-lactone dehydrogenase.

The last step of ascorbic acid (AA) biosynthesis is catalysed by the enzyme L-galactono-1,4-lactone dehydrogenase (GalLDH, EC 1.3.2.3), located on the inner mitochondrial membrane. The enzyme converts L-galactono-1,4-lactone to ascorbic acid (AA). In this work, the cloning and characterization of a GalLDH full-length cDNA from melon (Cucumis melo L.) are described. Melon genomic DNA Southern analysis indicated that CmGalLDH was encoded by a single gene. CmGalLDH mRNA accumulation was detected in all tissues studied, but differentially expressed during fruit development and seed germination. It is hypothesized that induction of CmGalLDH gene expression in ripening melon fruit contributes to parallel increases in the AA content and so playing a role in the oxidative ripening process. Higher CmGalLDH message abundance in light-grown seedlings compared with those raised in the dark suggests that CmGalLDH expression is regulated by light. Finally, various stresses and growth regulators resulted in no significant change in steady state levels of CmGalLDH mRNA in 20-d-old melon seedlings. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first report of GalLDH transcript induction in seed germination and differential gene expression during fruit ripening.

Amino Acid Sequence↗
PubMed2005

The tomato Aux/IAA transcription factor IAA9 is involved in fruit development and leaf morphogenesis.

Auxin/indole-3-acetic acid (Aux/IAA) proteins are transcriptional regulators that mediate many aspects of plant responses to auxin. While functions of most Aux/IAAs have been defined mainly by gain-of-function mutant alleles in Arabidopsis thaliana, phenotypes associated with loss-of-function mutations have been scarce and subtle. We report here that the downregulation of IAA9, a tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) gene from a distinct subfamily of Aux/IAA genes, results in a pleiotropic phenotype, consistent with its ubiquitous expression pattern. IAA9-inhibited lines have simple leaves instead of wild-type compound leaves, and fruit development is triggered before fertilization, giving rise to parthenocarpy. This indicates that IAA9 is a key mediator of leaf morphogenesis and fruit set. In addition, antisense plants displayed auxin-related growth alterations, including enhanced hypocotyl/stem elongation, increased leaf vascularization, and reduced apical dominance. Auxin dose-response assays revealed that IAA9 downregulated lines were hypersensitive to auxin, although the only early auxin-responsive gene that was found to be upregulated in the antisense lines was IAA3. The activity of the IAA3 promoter was stimulated in the IAA9 antisense genetic background, indicating that IAA9 acts in planta as a transcriptional repressor of auxin signaling. While no mutation in any member of subfamily IV has been reported to date, the phenotypes associated with the downregulation of IAA9 reveal distinct and novel roles for members of the Aux/IAA gene family.

Conserved Sequence↗