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PubMed2006

The effect of problem-based learning on students' approaches to learning in the context of clinical nursing education.

The effect of problem-based learning (PBL) on nursing students' approaches to learning has received scanty attention in nursing education. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the effect of PBL on students' approaches to learning in clinical nursing education. Using a one-group before-after quasi-experimental design, the revised two-factor Study Process Questionnaire (R-SPQ-2F) was administered to compare students' approaches to learning before and after a period of clinical education in which PBL was implemented. Focus group interviews were used to elicit from students their PBL experience. Of the 237 students who participated in the study, 187 returned the R-SPQ-2F, representing a response rate of 78.9%. Twenty-eight of the students also participated in focus group interviews. The R-SPQ-2F scores indicated that for the deep approach to learning, the post-test mean score was noticeably higher than that at the pre-test (p=0.005). No significant difference was observed between the pre-test and post-test mean scores for the surface approach to learning (p>or=0.05). The four themes inductively derived from students' descriptions of their clinical education experience (motivated to learn; self-direction in learning; active, interactive and student-centred learning; and enjoyment in learning) also suggested that the students adopted a deep approach to learning during a period of clinical education in which PBL was implemented.

Adult↗

PubMed2001

Does learning a complex task have to be complex? A study in learning decomposition.

Many theories of skill acquisition have had considerable success in addressing the fine details of learning in relatively simple tasks, but can they scale up to complex tasks that are more typical of human learning in the real world? Some theories argue for scalability by making the implicit assumption that complex tasks consist of many smaller parts, which are learned according to basic learning principles. Surprisingly, there has been rather sparse empirical testing of this crucial assumption. In this article, we examine this assumption directly by decomposing the learning in the Kanfer-Ackerman Air-Traffic Controller Task (Ackerman, 1988) from the learning at the global level all the way down to the learning at the keystroke level. First, we reanalyze the data from Ackerman (1988) and show that the learning in this complex task does indeed reflect the learning of smaller parts at the keystroke level. Second, in a follow-up eye-tracking experiment, we show that a large portion of the learning at the keystroke level reflects the learning even at a lower, i.e., attentional level.

Attention↗

PubMed2004

Towards a learning networked organisation: human capital, compatibility and usability in e-learning systems.

In all parts of organisations there flourish developments of different new subsystems in areas of knowledge and learning. Over recent decades, new systems for classification of jobs have emerged both at the level of organisations and at a macro-labour market level. Recent developments in job evaluation systems make it possible to cope with the new demands for equity at work (between, for example, genders, races, physical abilities). Other systems have emerged to describe job requirements in terms of skills, knowledge and competence. Systems for learning at work and web-based learning have created a demand for new ways to classify and to understand the process of learning. Often these new systems have been taken from other areas of the organisation not directly concerned with facilitating workplace learning. All these new systems are of course closely interrelated but, in most organisations, a major problem is the severe lack of cohesion and compatibility between the different subsystems. The aim of this paper is to propose a basis for how different human resource systems can be integrated into the business development of an organisation. We discuss this problem and develop proposals alternative to integrated macro-systems. A key element in our proposition is a structure for classification of knowledge and skill to be used in all parts of the process. This structure should be used as an added dimension or an overlay on all other subsystems of the total process. This will facilitate a continued use of all existing systems within different organisations. We develop Burge's (personal communication) model for learning to show that learning is not a successive linear process, but rather an iterative process. In this way we emphasise the need for greater involvement of learners in the development of learning systems towards increased usability in a networked system. This paper is divided into two parts which are closely related. The first part gives an overview of the lack of compatibility between the different subsystems. In this first part we note two paradoxes which impact learning and for which we propose solutions. The second part deals with 'usability' aspects of these competency-related systems; in particular, usability in e-learning systems. In this second part we describe an example of a new organisational structure. We conclude by discussing four key concepts that are necessary conditions for organisations to address when developing their human capital. Establishing these conditions helps ensure compatibility and usability in e-learning systems.

Computer-Assisted Instruction↗

PubMed2002

Expectancy-learning and evaluative learning in human classical conditioning: affective priming as an indirect and unobtrusive measure of conditioned stimulus valence.

It has been argued that in classical conditioning two processes might be operative. First, one may learn that the conditioned stimulus (CS+) is a valid predictor for the occurrence of the biologically negative or positive event (US; expectancy-learning). Second, one may learn to perceive the conditioned stimulus itself as a negative or positive stimulus, depending on the valence of the event it has been associated with (evaluative learning). Until the present, however, both forms of learning have been investigated using rather different conditioning procedures. Using a differential aversive conditioning preparation with pictures of human faces as CSs and an electrocutaneous stimulus as US, we were able to demonstrate that both forms of learning can co-occur. Moreover, the extent of evaluative learning in this aversive conditioning procedure did not significantly differ from the amount of evaluative learning in an evaluative conditioning procedure with positive and negative adjectives as USs, which was administered to the same participants. In the present study evaluative learning was not only indexed by direct evaluative ratings, but we introduced affective priming as an indirect and unobtrusive, reaction time based measure of stimulus valence. Finally, imagery instructions during acquisition did not facilitate expectancy-learning nor evaluative learning.

Adult↗

PubMed2001

Students' perceptions of learning outcomes from group-based, problem-based teaching and learning activities.

OBJECTIVE: A study aimed at exploring the variation in perceptions of learning outcomes reported by undergraduate nursing students enrolled in a problem-based learning subject in a pre-registration Bachelor of Nursing course (BN). METHOD: Students were asked to respond to four open-ended questions which focussed on their learning outcomes in the different teaching/learning modalities of the subject. Data were analysed in two phases using a modified phenomenographic analysis. In the first phase a set of categories of description were developed from the student responses to questions related to the learning modalities. In the second phase the individual responses were classified in terms of the categories. Finally, correlations between the learning modalities were identified. In this paper the approach to analysis, the process of category identification and the correlations between the learning modalities will be described and the implications for further research and teaching will be discussed. RESULTS: The findings indicated that there were two distinct groups of student responses. Inward focussed students who described outcomes in terms of their own learning and students whose focus was outward i.e. describing learning in terms of patient care and how learning relates to that care. Another important result shows the relationship between the learning modalities and outcomes. From the students' perspective, the most sophisticated outcomes of the lectures and laboratories were ideas and skills to be used and applied in clinical settings. Whereas, the group-based activities in which clinical problems were presented to the students in the form of Situation Improvement Packages (SIPS) focussed their attention on the clinical setting which constituted a preparation for the realities of clinical practice. CONCLUSION: The findings from this study indicate that students perceive their learning in the group based teaching/learning modality (SIPS) as effective in focussing them on the reality of their role in the clinical practice environment while lectures and laboratories provided the skills and knowledge required for this setting.

Curriculum↗

PubMed1999

How doctors learn: physicians' self-directed learning episodes.

PURPOSE: To qualitatively examine the self-directed learning activities of physicians in light of several lines of research on how doctors learn. METHOD: Under the auspices of the Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada, the author elicited from physicians narratives about past learning experiences. He analyzed the narratives (1) seeking themes among the doctors' approaches and (2) examining those themes in light of the existing literature. RESULTS: The 32 physicians interviewed described learning experiences, confirming earlier research that two varieties of problems (specific and general) precipitate learning and that learning episodes follow definite stages: scanning for problems, deciding whether to pursue the learning task, acquiring new knowledge and skill, and gaining experience with what has been learned. The latter three stages have been described previously and are expanded upon here. CONCLUSION: This study produced an integrated and elaborated theory of learning in clinical practice with implications for both the education of physicians in training and physicians' continuing professional development. In particular, the theory points to problem areas in teaching medical students and residents to learn in clinical practice, and in matching the learning needs of physicians to organized continuing medical education activities.

Adult↗

PubMed1990

Learning styles and learning preferences of first and fourth semester baccalaureate degree nursing students.

Learning styles and preferred learning approaches are believed to have an influence on student learning. This study compared the learning styles and learning preferences of first and fourth semester baccalaureate nursing students, as well as explored changes in learning styles and learning preferences from first to fourth semester. The two predominant learning styles of both groups of students were Abstract Random and Concrete Sequential. According to Gregorc, (1982a), these learning styles are on the opposite poles in relation to perceiving and ordering information. No significant changes were found in learning style scores from first to fourth semester. Students indicated a range of preferences for 12 learning methods. Mean scores on three methods (slide/filmstrip, short lecture with question and answer, television/movies) dropped significantly from first to fourth semester. Implications for nursing education are discussed.

Choice Behavior↗

PubMed2006

A blended learning program on undergraduate nursing students' learning of electrocardiography.

This study sought to evaluate the feasibility of applying the blended learning program that combines the advantages of face-to-face(FTF) learning and e-learning. The blended learning program was developed by the authors and implemented for 4 weeks. 56 senior nursing students were recruited at a university in Korea. Significant improvement was noted in learning achievement. No significant differences were noted between FTF and web-based learning in learning motivation. Learning satisfaction and students' experience in taking this course revealed some positive effects of blended learning. The use of blended learning program for undergraduate nursing students will provide an effective learning model.

Curriculum↗

PubMed2001

Lesions in the central nucleus of the amygdala: discriminative avoidance learning, discriminative approach learning, and cingulothalamic training-induced neuronal activity.

The amygdala is critically involved in discriminative avoidance learning. Large lesions of the amygdala block discriminative avoidance learning and abolish cingulothalamic training-induced neuronal activity. These results indicated that amygdalar processing is critical for cingulothalamic plasticity. The larger lesions did not allow differentiation of the specific functioning of various amygdalar nuclei. Anatomical analysis showed that damage in the central (CE) nucleus of the amygdala was correlated with the severity of the behavioral deficit. The present study was carried out to determine whether smaller lesions, centered in the CE nucleus, would impair discriminative avoidance learning and block cingulothalamic plasticity. In addition, the possible role of the CE nucleus in appetitively motivated discriminative approach learning was examined for the first time. New Zealand White rabbits with CE nuclear lesions were first trained in the discriminative approach task. After attaining asymptotic performance, discriminative avoidance training sessions were alternated with continuing approach training sessions, one session each day. The rabbits with lesions were severely impaired in avoidance learning but showed no impairment of approach learning. Surprisingly, the attenuating effects of the lesions on cingulothalamic training-induced neuronal activity were more prevalent during approach learning than during avoidance learning. These results indicated that avoidance learning can be impaired by lesions centered in the CE nucleus that leave cingulothalamic plasticity largely intact and that the CE nucleus is involved in extra-cingulothalamic learning processes.

Amygdala↗

PubMed2005

Perceptual-motor skill learning in Gilles de la Tourette syndrome. Evidence for multiple procedural learning and memory systems.

Procedural learning and memory systems likely comprise several skills that are differentially affected by various illnesses of the central nervous system, suggesting their relative functional independence and reliance on differing neural circuits. Gilles de la Tourette syndrome (GTS) is a movement disorder that involves disturbances in the structure and function of the striatum and related circuitry. Recent studies suggest that patients with GTS are impaired in performance of a probabilistic classification task that putatively involves the acquisition of stimulus-response (S-R)-based habits. Assessing the learning of perceptual-motor skills and probabilistic classification in the same samples of GTS and healthy control subjects may help to determine whether these various forms of procedural (habit) learning rely on the same or differing neuroanatomical substrates and whether those substrates are differentially affected in persons with GTS. Therefore, we assessed perceptual-motor skill learning using the pursuit-rotor and mirror tracing tasks in 50 patients with GTS and 55 control subjects who had previously been compared at learning a task of probabilistic classifications. The GTS subjects did not differ from the control subjects in performance of either the pursuit rotor or mirror-tracing tasks, although they were significantly impaired in the acquisition of a probabilistic classification task. In addition, learning on the perceptual-motor tasks was not correlated with habit learning on the classification task in either the GTS or healthy control subjects. These findings suggest that the differing forms of procedural learning are dissociable both functionally and neuroanatomically. The specific deficits in the probabilistic classification form of habit learning in persons with GTS are likely to be a consequence of disturbances in specific corticostriatal circuits, but not the same circuits that subserve the perceptual-motor form of habit learning.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2006

The use of deep and surface learning strategies among students learning English as a foreign language in an Internet environment.

BACKGROUND: The learning context is learning English in an Internet environment. The examination of this learning process was based on the Biggs and Moore's teaching-learning model (Biggs & Moore, 1993). AIM: The research aims to explore the use of the deep and surface strategies in an Internet environment among EFL students who come from different socio-economic backgrounds. The results of the research may add an additional level to the understanding of students' functioning in the Internet environment. SAMPLE: One hundred fourty-eight Israeli junior and high school students participated in this research. METHODS: The methodology was based on special computer software: Screen Cam, which recorded the students' learning process. In addition, expert judges completed a questionnaire which examined and categorized the students' learning strategies. RESULTS: The research findings show a clear preference of participants from all socio-economic backgrounds towards the surface learning strategy. The findings also showed that students from the medium to high socio-economic background used both learning strategies more frequently than low socio-economic students. CONCLUSIONS: The results reflect the habits that students acquire during their adjustment process throughout their education careers. A brief encounter with the Internet learning environment apparently cannot change norms or habits, which were acquired in the non-Internet learning environment.

Female↗

PubMed2005

Schema-based learning of adaptable and flexible prey- catching in anurans II. Learning after lesioning.

The previous companion paper describes the initial (seed) schema architecture that gives rise to the observed prey-catching behavior. In this second paper in the series we describe the fundamental adaptive processes required during learning after lesioning. Following bilateral transections of the hypoglossal nerve, anurans lunge toward mealworms with no accompanying tongue or jaw movement. Nevertheless anurans with permanent hypoglossal transections eventually learn to catch their prey by first learning to open their mouth again and then lunging their body further and increasing their head angle. In this paper we present a new learning framework, called schema-based learning (SBL). SBL emphasizes the importance of the current existent structure (schemas), that defines a functioning system, for the incremental and autonomous construction of ever more complex structure to achieve ever more complex levels of functioning. We may rephrase this statement into the language of Schema Theory (Arbib 1992, for a comprehensive review) as the learning of new schemas based on the stock of current schemas. SBL emphasizes a fundamental principle of organization called coherence maximization, that deals with the maximization of congruence between the results of an interaction (external or internal) and the expectations generated for that interaction. A central hypothesis consists of the existence of a hierarchy of predictive internal models (predictive schemas) all over the control center-brain-of the agent. Hence, we will include predictive models in the perceptual, sensorimotor, and motor components of the autonomous agent architecture. We will then show that predictive models are fundamental for structural learning. In particular we will show how a system can learn a new structural component (augment the overall network topology) after being lesioned in order to recover (or even improve) its original functionality. Learning after lesioning is a special case of structural learning but clearly shows that solutions cannot be known/hardwired a priori since it cannot be known, in advance, which substructure is going to break down.

Animals↗

PubMed2005

Student learning in clinical nursing education: perceptions of the relationship between assessment and learning.

There is a wealth of literature demonstrating that clinical nursing education is an important part of the baccalaureate programme in preparing students for entry into the nursing profession. While much attention has been given to the factors that can affect learning outcomes in the clinical environment, student and teacher perceptions of the relationship between assessment and learning has remained an under-researched area. The purpose of this study was to explore the perceptions about what students learned and how they learned during their clinical practicum, and to examine the role played by assessment in influencing student learning. Data were collected through a series of focus group interviews with groups of nursing students, graduates, and teachers. It was revealed that students' learning during the clinical practicum was, to a large extent, affected by their perceptions of the assessment tasks. As a result, they adopted a surface approach to learning and focused on preparing for the assessment tasks to the detriment of their learning. Assessment, in this study, exerted what has been described as a negative "backwash" effect on learning. Since assessment may also foster student learning in a positive way, suggestions are offered as to what can be done to bring about a positive "backwash" effect.

Attitude of Health Personnel↗

PubMed2004

Challenge and hindrance stress: relationships with exhaustion, motivation to learn, and learning performance.

In a study of 696 learners, the authors found that stress associated with challenges in the learning environment had a positive relationship with learning performance and that stress associated with hindrances in the learning environment had a negative relationship with learning performance. They also found evidence suggesting that these stress-learning performance relationships were partially mediated by exhaustion and motivation to lean. Both forms of stress were positively related to exhaustion, and exhaustion was negatively related to learning performance. Hindrance stress was negatively related to motivation to learn, challenge stress was positively related to motivation to learn, and motivation to learn was positively related to learning performance. Implications with respect to theory and practice are discussed.

Adult↗

PubMed2002

Trialling a new way to learn clinical skills: systematic clinical appraisal and learning.

AIM: To describe and evaluate the effectiveness of a new method of teaching clinical skills designed to increase students' active and self-directed learning as well as tutor feedback. METHODS: A total of 22 consenting Year 4 medical students undertaking general practice and general surgery clinical experience were involved in a pre- and post-test research design. In the initial period of the study, students were taught clinical skills in a traditional manner. In the second phase a clinical teaching strategy called systematic clinical appraisal and learning (SCAL) was utilised. This learning strategy involved active and self-directed learning, holistic care and immediate feedback. Students independently saw a patient and were asked to make judgements about the patient's potential diagnosis, tests required, management, psychosocial needs, preventive health requirements, and any ethical problems. These judgements were then compared with those of the clinical supervisor, who saw the same patient independently. Students recorded details for each consultation. Comparisons were made of the two study periods to examine whether the use of SCAL increased the number of students' independent judgements, perceived student learning, tutor feedback and self-directed learning. RESULTS: During the SCAL learning period, students reported making a greater number of statistically significant independent judgements, and receiving significantly increased tutor feedback in both general practice and general surgery. The number of learning goals set by students was not found to differ between the two periods in surgery but significantly increased in general practice in the SCAL period. Students' perceptions of their learning significantly increased in the SCAL period in surgery but not in general practice. During the traditional learning period in both settings, there was limited student decision-making about most aspects of care, but particularly those relating to prevention, psychosocial issues and ethics. CONCLUSIONS: The SCAL approach appears to offer some advantages over traditional clinical skills teaching. It appears to encourage active and independent decision-making, and to increase tutor feedback. Further exploration of the approach appears warranted.

Clinical Competence↗

PubMed2004

Computer-aided learning in the real world of medical education: does the quality of interaction with the computer affect student learning?

BACKGROUND: Computerised learning clearly offers exciting potential for improving student learning, either as an aid to or as a replacement for traditional formats, or for the development of innovative approaches. However, rigorous evaluation of the utility of computer-aided learning (CAL) in enhancing student learning can be difficult. Many studies have compared CAL to more traditional learning formats, but there is little evidence to show which style of CAL leads to the best learning outcomes. AIM: This study aimed to test the hypothesis that a CAL tutorial, in which the learner actively interacts with the computer, will result in superior learning (ability to apply and retain knowledge) to that obtained in more passive CAL formats. METHODS: Third year medical undergraduates at Adelaide University, South Australia were randomly assigned to 4 groups. Following a pretest, only students in the "didactic", "problem-based" and "free text" groups had 2 weeks of free access to a neuroradiology CAL tutorial in their assigned format. Tutorial access was denied to all students 2 weeks before post-testing. Learning was quantified by comparing the post- to pretest scores for each of the 4 groups. RESULTS: After active interaction with the computer material, students in the free text group demonstrated a statistically significant improvement in their ability to apply and retain knowledge compared to the control group, but no advantage compared to the didactic group. CONCLUSIONS: While users of an interactive CAL tutorial demonstrated significant learning gains compared to non-CAL users, these gains were not superior to those achieved from non-interactive CAL. When evaluating education interventions such as CAL packages, it is important to use a valid assessment tool to measure learning.

Australia↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Education techniques for lifelong learning: principles of adult learning.

The adult education literature supports the idea that teaching adults should be approached in a different way than teaching children and adolescents (preadults). Many aspects of effective teaching apply to all age groups. However, adults have had more life experiences and in many ways are differently motivated than children. Adults are more self-directed in their learning and have a greater need to know why they should learn something. Self-initiated learning is the most lasting and pervasive. Learning should be applicable to the learner's work or to other responsibilities valued by the learner. Thus, it is important that the instructor know the learner's needs and design learning activities that are relevant to those needs. The learner should be actively involved in learning, with the instructor acting as a facilitator. The instructor should recognize that adults have different learning styles and should tailor instruction to the characteristic ways adults prefer to learn. Understanding the principles of adult learning can help teachers become better facilitators of learning.

Adult↗

PubMed2000

An associational model of birdsong sensorimotor learning II. Temporal hierarchies and the learning of song sequence.

Understanding the neural mechanisms underlying serially ordered behavior is a fundamental problem in motor learning. We present a computational model of sensorimotor learning in songbirds that is constrained by the known functional anatomy of the song circuit. The model subsumes our companion model for learning individual song "syllables" and relies on the same underlying assumptions. The extended model addresses the problem of learning to produce syllables in the correct sequence. Central to our approach is the hypothesis that the Anterior Forebrain Pathway (AFP) produces signals related to the comparison of the bird's own vocalizations and a previously memorized "template." This "AFP comparison hypothesis" is challenged by the lack of a direct projection from the AFP to the song nucleus HVc, a candidate site for the generator of song sequence. We propose that sequence generation in HVc results from an associative chain of motor and sensory representations (motor --> sensory --> next motor. ) encoded within the two known populations of HVc projection neurons. The sensory link in the chain is provided, not by auditory feedback, but by a centrally generated efference copy that serves as an internal prediction of this feedback. The use of efference copy as a substitute for the sensory signal explains the ability of adult birds to produce normal song immediately after deafening. We also predict that the AFP guides sequence learning by biasing motor activity in nucleus RA, the premotor nucleus downstream of HVc. Associative learning then remaps the output of the HVc sequence generator. By altering the motor pathway in RA, the AFP alters the correspondence between HVc motor commands and the resulting sensory feedback and triggers renewed efference copy learning in HVc. Thus, auditory feedback-mediated efference copy learning provides an indirect pathway by which the AFP can influence sequence generation in HVc. The model makes predictions concerning the role played by specific neural populations during the sensorimotor phase of song learning and demonstrates how simple rules of associational plasticity can contribute to the learning of a complex behavior on multiple time scales.

Animals↗