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PubMed2002

Computational and evolutionary aspects of language.

Language is our legacy. It is the main evolutionary contribution of humans, and perhaps the most interesting trait that has emerged in the past 500 million years. Understanding how darwinian evolution gives rise to human language requires the integration of formal language theory, learning theory and evolutionary dynamics. Formal language theory provides a mathematical description of language and grammar. Learning theory formalizes the task of language acquisition it can be shown that no procedure can learn an unrestricted set of languages. Universal grammar specifies the restricted set of languages learnable by the human brain. Evolutionary dynamics can be formulated to describe the cultural evolution of language and the biological evolution of universal grammar.

Biological Evolution↗

PubMed2002

A longitudinal investigation of reading outcomes in children with language impairments.

This investigation examined the reading outcomes of children with language impairments (LI). A large subsample of children who participated in an epidemiologic study of language impairments in kindergarten (J. B. Tomblin, N. Records, P. Buckwalter, X. Zhang, E. Smith, & M. O'Brien, 1997) was followed into second and fourth grades. Participants' language, reading, and nonverbal cognitive abilities were assessed. Results indicated that children with LI in kindergarten were at a high risk for reading disabilities in second and fourth grades. This risk was higher for children with a nonspecific language impairment (nonverbal and language deficits) than for those with a specific language impairment (deficits in language alone). Children with LI in kindergarten who had improved in spoken language abilities by second and fourth grades had better reading outcomes than those with persistent language impairments. Also, children's literacy knowledge/ experience in kindergarten and their initial reading achievement in second grade were good predictors of subsequent reading outcomes.

Child↗

PubMed2006

Children's history of speech-language difficulties: genetic influences and associations with reading-related measures.

PURPOSE: This study examined (a) the extent of genetic and environmental influences on children's articulation and language difficulties and (b) the phenotypic associations between such difficulties and direct assessments of reading-related skills during early school-age years. METHOD: Behavioral genetic analyses focused on parent-report data regarding the speech-language skills of 248 twin pairs (M = 6.08 years) from the Western Reserve Reading Project. In addition, phenotypic associations between children's speech-language status and direct assessments of early reading-related abilities were examined through hierarchical linear modeling (HLM). RESULTS: Probandwise concordance rates and intraclass tetrachoric correlations indicated high heritability for children's difficulties in expressive language and articulation, with estimates of .54 and .97 accordingly. HLM results indicated that children with histories of speech-language difficulties scored significantly lower than unaffected children on various measures of early reading-related abilities. CONCLUSIONS: Results from the parent-report survey provided converging evidence of genetic effects on children's speech and language difficulties and suggest that children with a history of speech-language difficulties are at risk for lower performance on early reading-related measures. The extent of risk differed across measures and appeared greatest for children who demonstrated a history of difficulties across articulation, expressive language, and receptive language. Implications for future genetic research and clinical practice are discussed.

Articulation Disorders↗

PubMed2004

Isolation by language and distance in Belgium.

The isonymy structure of trilingual Belgium was studied using the surname distributions for 1,118,004 private telephone users. The users were distributed in 77 Flemish, 76 French, and 3 German speaking towns, selected on a geographic basis to form an approximately regular grid over Belgium. Lasker's distance was found to be considerably higher between languages than within languages. For the whole of Belgium, irrespective of language, it was highly correlated with linear geographic distance, with r = 0.721+/-0.014, which is the highest correlation observed in European countries to date. Within Belgium and within languages, the correlation was highest among the Flemish (r = 0.878 +/- 0.007), and lowest among the French (r = 0.631+/-0.020). Isolation by distance in Belgium is the highest we have found in Europe, and as high as in Switzerland where the different languages are separated by geographical barriers. This is not the case in Belgium, so that the considerable isolating power of languages emerges clearly from the present analysis. From the comparison of Lasker's distance between (9.48) and within (8.16) languages, and from its regression over geographic distance (b = 0.01206), it was possible to establish a quantitative relationship between the isolating power of languages and that of geographic distance as (9.48-8.16)/0.01206 = 109 kilometres. This transformation of language distance into an equivalent geographic distance, given here for Belgium, can be applied to any similar geo-linguistic situation.

Belgium↗

PubMed2001

[Word generation in bilinguals--fMRI study with implications for language and memory processes].

For over a century the cerebral representation of language functions is a matter of debate. In Neuroscience language is regarded as one of the most lateralized cognitive functions. Thus, while the language which is acquired first in most cases is processed by the left hemisphere some studies in brain damaged but also experimental investigations propose a pivotal role of the right hemisphere in second language processing. By the advent of modern neuroimaging it is now possible to study language lateralization and bilinguality also in healthy subjects. We studied first and second language abilities in a group of bilingual, healthy individuals by means of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) with a word-fluency paradigm. While we found a predominantly left prefrontal activity during both first and also second language processing an additional right prefrontal activation was registered during the use of second language. Our findings are discussed on the basis of an interaction between language and memory processes.

Adult↗

PubMed2002

Language familiarity effects in short-term memory: the role of output delay and long-term knowledge.

Four experiments examined the origins of language familiarity effects in bilingual short-term recall. In Experiments 1A and 1B, bilingual adults were tested on serial recall and probed serial recall of words and nonwords in their first and second languages. A first-language advantage was obtained on both measures, indicating that the beneficial effects of language familiarity are not exclusively attributable to lesser output delay during overt recall. In Experiments 2A and 2B, the same group of bilinguals was tested on serial recall and serial recognition of word lists in both languages. Although a sizeable first-language advantage was obtained on the serial recall measure, recognition performance was comparable in the two languages. On the basis of these results it is suggested that language differences in bilingual immediate memory arise in large part as a consequence of the differential availability of language-specific long-term knowledge with which to support retrieval processes in serial recall.

Adult↗

PubMed2004

ERP correlates of a receptive language-switching task.

Previous research has shown large response time costs (in excess of 50 ms) when bilingual speakers switch predictably back and forth between naming items (a productive switching task) in their first (L1) and second languages (L2). A recent study using event-related potentials (ERPs) has shown that switching between languages is associated with activity over frontal (N2) and parietal (late positive complex) areas of cortex (Jackson, Swainson, Cunnington, & Jackson, 2001). Switching between naming in different languages requires a switch in both language representations and language-specific motor responses. The current study investigated a receptive (input) language-switching task with a common manual response. Number words were presented in L1 and L2, and participants were required to judge whether the words were odd or even (a parity judgement). Response costs were considerably reduced, and the frontal and parietal switch related activity reported in the productive switching task was absent. Receptive switching was associated with early switch-related activity over central sensors that were not language specific. These results are discussed in relation to the idea that there is no language-specific lexical selection mechanism. Instead the costs of receptive language switching may arise from outside the bilingual lexicon.

Adult↗

PubMed1999

Language-specific knowledge and short-term memory in bilingual and non-bilingual children.

The sensitivity of children's phonological short-term memory performance to language-specific knowledge was investigated in two experiments. In Experiment 1, monolingual English children, English-French bilingual children, and English children who were learning French as a second language were compared on measures of phonological short-term memory and vocabulary in the two languages. The children's short-term memory performance in each language mirrored their familiarity with English and French, with greater vocabulary knowledge being associated with higher levels of recall of both words and nonwords in that language. This finding was replicated in Experiment 2, in which two groups of children with good knowledge of English and French were examined: native bilingual children who had comparable knowledge of the two languages and non-native bilingual children who had a greater knowledge of their native than second language. The findings indicate that phonological short-term memory is not a language-independent system but, rather, functions in a highly language-specific way.

Analysis of Variance↗

PubMed1999

Native language shifts across sleep-wake states in bilingual sleeptalkers.

STUDY OBJECTIVES: To assess language used during episodes of sleeptalking in bilingual children. DESIGN: The investigation was accomplished through the parents who, after having received appropriate information, participated by filling out a survey on sleeptalking. SETTINGS: The study was performed in three bilingual schools of the Basque country, a region in northern Spain in which two completely different official languages are spoken. PATIENTS: A total of 1000 parents agreed to participate, and 681 children were studied. MEASUREMENTS AND RESULTS: Sleeptalking was reported by 383 (56.3%) of children (mean age 9 years; range: 3-17). Most individuals used their dominant (i.e., native) language during sleep. However, a minority (< 4%) were found to use their non-dominant language persistently during episodes of sleeptalking. CONCLUSIONS: Balanced bilinguals (those who have equal proficiency in both languages) may sleeptalk in either of the two languages. Dominant bilinguals (i.e., having greater proficiency in one language) may preferentially sleeptalk in their dominant language, with immediate past events probably influencing language use in individual subjects on particular nights. Several considerations are postulated as an explanation for the group who systematically exhibited a dominance shift during sleep.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1998

Transcranial magnetic stimulation: language function.

Studies of language using transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) have focused both on identification of language areas and on elucidation of function. TMS may result in either inhibition or facilitation of language processes and may operate directly at a presumptive site of language cortex or indirectly through intracortical networks. TMS has been used to create reversible "temporary lesions," similar to those produced by Wada tests and direct cortical electrical stimulation, in cerebral cortical areas subserving language function. Rapid-rate TMS over the left inferior frontal region blocks speech output in most subjects. However, the results are not those predicted from classic models of language organization. Speech arrest is obtained most easily over facial motor cortex, and true aphasia is rare, whereas right hemisphere or bilateral lateralization is unexpectedly prominent. A clinical role for these techniques is not yet fully established. Interfering with language comprehension and verbal memory is currently more difficult than blocking speech output, but numerous TMS studies have demonstrated facilitation of language-related tasks, including oral word association, story recall, digit span, and picture naming. Conversely, speech output also facilitates motor responses to TMS in the dominant hemisphere. Such new and often-unexpected findings may provide important insights into the organization of language.

Cerebral Cortex↗

PubMed2005

Prevalence and early identification of language delays among at-risk three year olds.

The aims of this study were fourfold: to document the prevalence of language delays in a sample of at-risk 3 year olds; to assess the effectiveness of a home visiting program in preventing early language delays; to determine how often parents, pediatric providers, and home visitors identified early language delays; and to assess the effectiveness of a home visiting program in improving early identification of language delays. The Preschool Language Scale, Third Edition (PLS-3) was administered to 513 at-risk 3 year olds participating in a randomized trial of home visiting services. Families randomized to home visiting were expected to receive weekly to quarterly visits throughout the 3 years of this study. The content of home visits included teaching parents about child development, role-modeling parenting skills, and linking families to a medical home. Identification of delays was measured using structured parent interviews and review of primary care and home visiting records. At age 3 years, 10% of children had severe language delays, defined as scoring >or=2 SD below the national mean on the PLS-3, whereas 49% scored >or=1 SD below the national mean. No differences in prevalence were seen between children who did and did not receive home visiting. Among children with severe delays, 42% were identified by parents, 33% by pediatric providers, and 24% by home visitors. Among children with any delays, 24% were identified by parents, 25% by pediatric providers, and 17% by home visitors. No differences in rates of identification were seen between children who did and did not receive home visiting. Thus, while language delays were highly prevalent among these at-risk children, rates of identification were low, even among children with severe delays. Home visiting was not effective in either preventing language delays or improving early identification. This suggests that pediatric providers and home visiting programs need to reexamine their approaches to recognizing and intervening with early language delays.

Age Factors↗

PubMed2005

Cerebellar activation patterns in deaf participants for perception of sign language and written text.

To address the influence of language presentation on cerebellar activation, hearing volunteers were compared with deaf individuals using functional magnetic resonance imaging during observation of German sign language and text reading. In deaf participants, German sign language revealed activation of the auditory and language-related areas including the medial temporal gyrus (BA 21) and Crus I. In normal hearing participants not understanding German sign language, Crus I was less activated during observation of German sign language but strongly activated during text reading and accompanied by activation of the medial temporal gyrus. Our results indicate that cerebellar activation in Crus I corresponds to language perception as correlated with cortical activation in language-related areas and is not dependent on the mode of language presentation.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1997

Phonological processing skills in speech and language impaired children.

Phonological processing has been shown by many researchers to be strongly related to the acquisition of reading and spelling skills. Children with speech and language impairment appear to be at increased risk for phonological processing problems and hence literary difficulties. However, not all children with speech and language impairment experience difficulties: the literature is not clear as to which groups of speech and language impaired children are most severely affected nor which aspects of phonological processing are most likely to be impaired. Rigorous subject selection was employed to compare the performance of four groups of 20 children, aged approximately 6 years: speech-impaired (Speech); language-impaired (Language); speech and language impaired (Mixed); and children with normally developing language (Normal), by use of a battery of phonological processing tasks. The results supported the research that has shown speech and language impaired children to have weaker phonological processing skills than the general population. All the subjects in this sample appeared to be at risk: the Mixed children demonstrated the most difficulty, followed by the Language group, with the Normal group performing the best. Whilst the Speech group as a whole performed significantly more poorly than the Normal group, it consisted of two levels of performance which, on post hoc analysis were shown to relate to the pattern of speech impairment exhibited by the child.

Child↗

PubMed2006

Nicaraguan Sign Language and Theory of Mind: the issue of critical periods and abilities.

BACKGROUND: Previous studies in the literature report that deaf individuals who experience late access to language perform poorly on false belief tests of Theory of Mind (ToM) compared with age-matched deaf and hearing controls exposed to language early. METHODS: A group of 22 deaf Nicaraguans (aged 7 to 39 years) who learned Nicaraguan Sign Language (ISN) at different ages were tested on a false belief and a nonverbal cartoon retell task designed to elicit talk about the contents of character's mental states. RESULTS: Access to sign language by 10 years of age with possible advantages in language fluency was a strong predictor of performance on both the false belief task and mental state narrative task. However, a comparison of performance on the two tests indicated that children and adults who learned sign after the age of 10 were still able to demonstrate a more general ability to use mental state expressions in narratives. Results are discussed in terms of late access to language and critical periods for the parallel development of Theory of Mind and language. CONCLUSIONS: The findings point to age 10 years as a crucial period when lack of language exposure can lead to long-lasting deficits in false belief abilities. Late exposure to sign language does not, however, rule out all aspects of the ability to consider others' mental states. This paper also highlights the need to take into consideration a variety of communication responses when evaluating deaf children's ToM reasoning.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2006

FMRI lateralization of expressive language in children with cerebral lesions.

PURPOSE: Lateralization of language function is crucial to the planning of surgery in children with frontal or temporal lobe lesions. We examined the utility of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) as a determinant of lateralization of expressive language in children with cerebral lesions. METHODS: fMRI language lateralization was attempted in 35 children (29 with epilepsy) aged 8-18 years with frontal or temporal lobe lesions (28 left hemisphere, five right hemisphere, two bilateral). Axial and coronal fMRI scans through the frontal and temporal lobes were acquired at 1.5 Tesla by using a block-design, covert word-generation paradigm. Activation maps were lateralized by blinded visual inspection and quantitative asymmetry indices (hemispheric and inferior frontal regions of interest, at p<0.001 uncorrected and p<0.05 Bonferroni corrected). RESULTS: Thirty children showed significant activation in the inferior frontal gyrus. Lateralization by visual inspection was left in 21, right in six, and bilateral in three, and concordant with hemispheric and inferior frontal quantitative lateralization in 93% of cases. Developmental tumors and dysplasias involving the inferior left frontal lobe had activation overlying or abutting the lesion in five of six cases. fMRI language lateralization was corroborated in six children by frontal cortex stimulation or intracarotid amytal testing and indirectly supported by aphasiology in a further six cases. In two children, fMRI language lateralization was bilateral, and corroborative methods of language lateralization were left. Neither lesion lateralization, patient handedness, nor developmental versus acquired nature of the lesion was associated with language lateralization. Involvement of the left inferior or middle frontal gyri increased the likelihood of atypical language lateralization. CONCLUSIONS: fMRI lateralizes language in children with cerebral lesions, although caution is needed in interpretation of individual results.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2001

Comparison between language and music.

Similarities and differences between language and music processing are examined from an evolutionary and a cognitive perspective. Language and music cannot be considered single entities; they need to be decomposed into different component operations or levels of processing. The central question concerns one of the most important claims of the generative grammar theory, that is, the specificity of language processing: do the computations performed to process language rely on specific linguistic processes or do they rely on general cognitive principles? Evidence from brain imaging results is reviewed, noting that this field is currently in need of metanalysis of the available results to precisely evaluate this claim. A series of experiments, mainly using the event-related brain potentials method, were conducted to compare different levels of processing in language and music. Overall, results favor language specificity when certain aspects of semantic processing in language are compared with certain aspects of melodic and harmonic processing in music. By contrast, results support the view that general cognitive principles are involved when aspects of syntactic processing in language are compared with aspects of harmonic processing in music. Moreover, analysis of the temporal structure led to similar effects in language and music. These tentative conclusions must be supported by other brain imaging results to shed further light on the spatiotemporal dynamics of the brain structure-function relationship.

Brain↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Requirements for medical modeling languages.

OBJECTIVE: The development of tailor-made domain-specific modeling languages is sometimes desirable in medical informatics. Naturally, the development of such languages should be guided. The purpose of this article is to introduce a set of requirements for such languages and show their application in analyzing and comparing existing modeling languages. DESIGN: The requirements arise from the practical experience of the authors and others in the development of modeling languages in both general informatics and medical informatics. The requirements initially emerged from the analysis of information modeling techniques. The requirements are designed to be orthogonal, i.e., one requirement can be violated without violation of the others. RESULTS: The proposed requirements for any modeling language are that it be "formal" with regard to syntax and semantics, "conceptual," "expressive," "comprehensible," "suitable," and "executable." The requirements are illustrated using both the medical logic modules of the Arden Syntax as a running example and selected examples from other modeling languages. CONCLUSION: Activity diagrams of the Unified Modeling Language, task structures for work flows, and Petri nets are discussed with regard to the list of requirements, and various tradeoffs are thus made explicit. It is concluded that this set of requirements has the potential to play a vital role in both the evaluation of existing domain-specific languages and the development of new ones.

Medical Informatics↗

PubMed1996

Psychiatric evaluation and psychotherapy in the patient's second language.

Use of a patient's second language in psychiatric evaluation and treatment has a variety of effects. Patients frequently undergo psychiatric evaluation in their second language, yet competence in a second language varies depending on the phase of illness. Evaluation of bilingual patients should ideally be done in both their languages, preferably by a bilingual clinician or by a monolingual clinician with the help of an interpreter trained in mental health issues. Cultural nuances may be encoded in language in ways that are not readily conveyed in translation, even when the patient uses equivalent words in the second language. The monolingual clinician may clarify these nuances through consultation with a clinician who shares the patient's first language and culture or with an interpreter. In psychotherapy, patients may use a second language as a form of resistance, to avoid intense affect. Therapists may use language switching to overcome this resistance and to decrease emotional intensity, if necessary. Psychotherapy can also be affected by the attitudes toward speaking that are part of the patient's culture. Discussions with bilingual and bicultural consultants can elucidate these effects for the therapist who is unfamiliar with the patient's culture.

Cultural Characteristics↗