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Results for “Subcellular localization”

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PubMed1999

Analysis of the subcellular localization of huntingtin with a set of rabbit polyclonal antibodies in cultured mammalian cells of neuronal origin: comparison with the distribution of huntingtin in Huntington's disease autopsy brain.

Huntington's disease (HD) is a neurodegenerative disorder with a midlife onset. The disease is caused by expansion of a CAG (glutamine) repeat within the coding region of the HD gene. The molecular mechanism by which the mutated protein causes this disease is still unclear. To study the protein we have generated a set of rabbit polyclonal antibodies raised against different segments of the N-terminal, central and C-terminal parts of the protein. The polyclonal antibodies were affinity purified and characterized in ELISA and Western blotting experiments. All antibodies can react with mouse and human proteins. The specificity of these antibodies is underscored by their recognition of huntingtin with different repeat sizes in extracts prepared from patient-derived lymphoblasts. The antibodies were used in immunofluorescence experiments to study the subcellular localization of huntingtin in mouse neuroblastoma NIE-115 cells. The results indicate that most huntingtin is present in the cytoplasm, whereas a minor fraction is present in the nucleus. On differentiation of the NIE-115 cells in vitro, the subcellular distribution of huntingtin does not change significantly. These results suggest that full-length huntingtin with a normal repeat length can be detected in the nucleus of cycling and non-cycling cultured mammalian cells of neuronal origin. However, in HD autopsy brain the huntingtin-containing neuronal intranuclear inclusions can be detected only with antibodies raised against the N-terminus of huntingtin. Thus several forms of huntingtin display the propensity for nuclear localization, possibly with different functional consequences.

Animals↗

PubMed2003

Differential cellular and subcellular localization of heme-binding protein 23/peroxiredoxin I and heme oxygenase-1 in rat liver.

Heme-binding protein 23 (HBP23), also termed peroxiredoxin (Prx) I, and heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) are distinct antioxidant stress proteins that are co-ordinately induced by oxidative stress. HBP23/Prx I has thioredoxin-dependent peroxidase activity with high binding affinity for the pro-oxidant heme, while HO-1 is the inducible isoform of the rate-limiting enzyme of heme degradation. We investigated the cellular and subcellular localization of both proteins in rat liver. Whereas by immunohistochemistry (IHC) a uniformly high level of HBP23/Prx I expression was observed in liver parenchymal and different sinusoidal cells, HO-1 expression was restricted to Kupffer cells. By immunoelectron microscopy using the protein A-gold technique, HBP23/Prx I immunoreactivity was detected in cytoplasm, nuclear matrix, mitochondria, and peroxisomes of parenchymal and non-parenchymal liver cell populations. In contrast, the secretory pathway, i.e., the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi complex, was free of label. As determined by immunocytochemical (ICC) studies in liver cell cultures and by Western and Northern blotting analysis, HBP23/Prx I was highly expressed in cultures of isolated hepatocytes and Kupffer cells. In contrast, HO-1 was constitutively expressed only in Kupffer cell cultures but was also inducible in hepatocytes. These data suggest that HBP23/Prx I and HO-1 may have complementary antioxidant functions in different cell populations in rat liver.

Animals↗

PubMed2002

Subcellular localization of the bovine leukemia virus R3 and G4 accessory proteins.

Bovine leukemia virus (BLV) is a complex retrovirus that belongs to the Deltaretrovirus genus, which also includes Human T-cell leukemia virus type 1 (HTLV-1). Both viruses contain an X region coding for at least four proteins: Tax and Rex, which are involved in transcriptional and posttranscriptional regulation, respectively, and the accessory proteins R3 and G4 (for BLV) and p12(I), p13(II), and p30(II) (for HTLV-1). The present study was aimed at characterizing the subcellular localization of BLV R3 and G4. The results of immunofluorescence experiments on transfected HeLa Tat cells demonstrated that R3 is located in the nucleus and in cellular membranes, as previously reported for HTLV-1 p12(I). In contrast, G4, like p13(II), is localized both in the nucleus and in mitochondria. In addition, we have shown that G4 harbors a mitochondrial targeting signal consisting of a hydrophobic region and an amphipathic alpha-helix. Thus, despite a lack of significant primary sequence homology, R3 and p12(I) and G4 and p13(II) exhibit similar targeting properties, suggesting possible overlap in their functional properties.

Animals↗

PubMed1998

Subcellular localization of phosphoprotein B-50 in regenerating muscle. An immuno-electron microscopic study.

Phosphoprotein B-50, also termed growth-associated protein GAP43, is a membrane-bound phosphoprotein expressed in neurons. It is particularly abundant during periods of axonal outgrowth in development and regeneration of the central and peripheral nervous systems. Recently the expression of phosphoprotein B-50 in regenerating muscle fibers was reported and it was assumed that phosphoprotein B-50, in muscles, plays a role in the determination of the growth morphology of regenerating muscle fibers. Thus, phosphoprotein B-50 no longer can be regarded as a neuron-specific molecule. In this paper we study the subcellular localization of phosphoprotein B-50 in regenerating human skeletal muscle fibers by electron immunohistochemistry. Phosphoprotein B-50 immunoreactivity is randomly distributed over the nuclear and perinuclear area of regenerating muscle fibers. Previously, by light-microscopy phosphoprotein B-50 immunoreactivity was demonstrated on the inner face of the sarcolemma in hypotrophic type 1 fibers in congenital fiber type disproportion. It is this distribution of phosphoprotein B-50 in developmentally disordered myocytes in particular which allows an analogy to the corresponding results found for growing axons. But we did not find subsarcolemmal expression of B-50 in regenerating muscle fibers. Probably this indicates that there is a difference in B-50 expression between regeneration of muscle fibers and developmentally retarded/immature myofibers. The presented data suggest that phosphoprotein B-50 is inserted only stage-dependent in the extending sarcolemma of the growing muscle fiber. Analogously to the nervous system, phosphoprotein B-50 may serve a local function involving transmembrane signalling by means of calmodulin binding of phosphoprotein B-50 and/or phosphoprotein B-50 phosphorylation and dephosphorylation.

GAP-43 Protein↗

PubMed2000

Subcellular localization of alpha-synuclein in primary neuronal cultures: effect of missense mutations.

Numerous recent observations have implicated alpha-synuclein in the pathogenesis of several neurodegenerative diseases, including Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, dementia with Lewy bodies and multiple-system atrophy. Two missense mutations in the gene for alpha-synuclein have been identified in some cases of familial Parkinson's disease and it is thought that these may disrupt the normal structure of the protein and thus promote aggregation into Lewy body filaments. Here, we examine the subcellular localization of alpha-synuclein in primary cortical neurons maintained in a monolayer culture. The protein has widespread expression throughout neurons, including the nucleus, and has a discete localization in the neurites of more mature neurons, reminiscent of synaptic specializations. Interestingly, in a subpopulation of cortical neurons transfected at 13 days in vitro, we find that alpha-synuclein appears to aggregate into distinct punctate inclusions in the cytoplasm and proximal neurites. Unlike Lewy bodies, these structures are not ubiquitin positive. These regions of alpha-synuclein accumulation are observed following transfections with wild-type, Ala30Pro or Ala53Thr alpha-synuclein; neither mutation alters their frequency.

Animals↗

PubMed1993

Release and subcellular localization of acidic fibroblast growth factor expressed to high levels in HeLa cells.

Acidic fibroblast growth factor (aFGF) lacks a classical signal sequence for secretion via the exocytic pathway but yet has to be released from cells in order to interact with high affinity receptors on the cell surface. To study the release process, we have expressed human aFGF in HeLa cells using a T7 RNA polymerase-driven vaccinia virus system. The high level of expression in combination with an efficient antibody allowed us to analyze the release of aFGF by pulse-chase experiments, and to immunolocalize the protein in transfected cells. In the absence of heparin, only negligible amounts of aFGF were detected in the medium during a 15 hr chase period. However, if heparin was present during the chase, readily detectable amounts (about 10-20% of total) of aFGF were found in the medium during the 15 hr chase. Extracellular aFGF was first detected at 8 hr and increased during the chase. Concomitantly, only small amounts of lactate dehydrogenase activity, used as a cytoplasmic marker, was released from the cells. Further analyses indicated that heparin both stabilized the protein from degradation and prevented the binding of released aFGF to extracellular heparan-sulfate proteoglycans. Thus, both factors contributed to the increased recovery of aFGF in the presence of heparin. The slow and inefficient release of aFGF is consistent with our previous results obtained in insect cells expressing aFGF to a very high level, as well as with those obtained by others in cultured cells producing FGF. Immunolocalization using an affinity purified antibody made against native aFGF, showed strong fluorescence in the nuclei in most cells, while staining in the cytoplasm was usually weaker and varied between cells. The nuclear localization was confirmed by subcellular fractionation and immunoblot analysis. At an early time point following transfection (4 hr), aFGF was preferentially localized to the nuclei, while the distribution of the protein between cytoplasm and nuclei was about equal at later time points (12 hr). Thus, we conclude that aFGF is capable of efficiently entering the nucleus and apparently becoming trapped there.

Cell Nucleus↗

PubMed2002

The subcellular localization of an unusual rice calmodulin isoform, OsCaM61, depends on its prenylation status.

Calmodulin (CaM) is a small Ca2+-binding protein highly conserved in eukaryotes. We have reported previously a novel rice CaM-like protein (OsCaM61) which contains an N-terminal CaM domain and a C-terminal extension with a potential prenylation site. Here we report in vitro activity assays confirm OsCaM61 as a functional CaM. Using the green fluorescent protein (GFP) as a visual marker, we further studied the subcellular localization of OsCaM61 in stably transformed tobacco cells. The GFP-OsCaM61 fusion protein was membrane-associated whereas OsCaM61-GFP was mainly detected in the nucleoplasm. GFP-OsCaM61 was transported into the nucleoplasm upon a block in isoprenoid biosynthesis by mevinolin treatment of cells. These results indicate that the prenylated OsCaM61 molecules are mainly membrane-associated whereas its unprenylated counterparts are transported into the nucleoplasm. Thus, OsCaM61 may play functions in co-ordinating Ca2+ signaling with isoprenoid metabolism.

Amino Acid Sequence↗

PubMed1985

Subcellular localization of [3H]-nitrendipine binding sites in guinea-pig ileal smooth muscle.

The binding of [3H]-nitrendipine was studied in microsomal fractions isolated from guinea-pig ileal smooth muscle. Only one class of specific binding sites was detected, with a KD of 0.4 nM. For various dihydropyridine derivatives, including the stereoisomers of nimodipine and the 'Ca agonist' Bay K 8644, the potency for inhibition of [3H]-nitrendipine binding correlated well with the reported pharmacological potency in smooth muscle preparations. To establish the subcellular localization of [3H]-nitrendipine binding sites, untreated and digitonin-treated microsomal fractions were subfractionated by isopycnic density gradient centrifugation. The density distribution of [3H]-nitrendipine binding was markedly shifted by digitonin towards higher densities, as were the distributions of 5'-nucleotidase and [3H]-ouabain binding, whereas the distributions of NADPH:cytochrome c reductase and NADH:cytochrome c reductase were hardly modified by digitonin. It is concluded that most, if not all, [3H]-nitrendipine binding sites in guinea-pig ileal smooth muscle are present in the plasma membrane, in agreement with the postulated mode of action of dihydropyridines as inhibitors of plasmalemmal Ca channels.

5'-Nucleotidase↗

PubMed2006

Differential subcellular localizations of two human Sgo1 isoforms: implications in regulation of sister chromatid cohesion and microtubule dynamics.

Sgo1 is an evolutionarily conserved protein that functions as a protector of centromeric cohesin during mitosis. Recent studies show that Sgo1 is kinetochorelocalized and required for accurate segregation of mitotic chromosomes because depletion of Sgo1 in mammalian cells results in precocious initiation of anaphase and mis-segregation of chromosomes. Through analysis of GFP fusion proteins, we observe that two major isoforms of human Sgo1 exhibit entirely different subcellular localization patterns. The short isoform of Sgo1 (sSgo1) that lacks exon 6 does not localize to kinetochores during any stages of the cell cycle. Instead, it is enriched at mitotic spindles. On the other hand, the longer isoform of Sgo1 primarily localizes to kinetochores during G(2) phase and mitotic prophase, metaphase, and anaphase. During late mitosis, Sgo1 does not appear to be associated with kinetochores. Intriguingly, the longer isoform of Sgo1 forms discrete foci during S phase, some of which are apparently in the nucleoli. However, a majority of these foci colocalize with CREST, a kinetochore antigen, indicating that Sgo1 is loaded onto kinetochores during or immediately after DNA replication. Together, our studies suggest that different isoforms of Sgo1 may play distinct roles during the cell cycle and that Sgo1 may have an interphase function as well.

Cell Cycle Proteins↗

PubMed2004

Multiple Cos2/Ci interactions regulate Ci subcellular localization through microtubule dependent and independent mechanisms.

The Hedgehog (Hh) family of secreted proteins governs many developmental processes in both vertebrates and invertebrates. In Drosophila, Hh acts by blocking the formation of a truncated repressor form of Cubitus interruptus (Ci) and by stimulating the nuclear translocation and activity of full-length Ci (Ci155). In the absence of Hh, Ci155 is sequestered in the cytoplasm by forming protein complexes with Costal2 (Cos2), Fused (Fu) and Suppressor of Fused [Su(fu)]. How complex formation regulates Ci155 subcellular localization is not clear. We find that Cos2 interacts with two distinct domains of Ci155, an amino (N)-terminal domain (CDN) and a carboxyl (C)-terminal domain (CORD), and Cos2 competes with Su(fu) for binding to the N-terminal region of Ci155. We provide evidence that both N- and C-terminal Cos2 binding domains are involved in the cytoplasmic retention of Ci155 in imaginal discs. Treating imaginal discs with microtubule-destabilizing reagent nocodazole promotes nuclear translocation of Ci155, suggesting that the microtubule network plays an important role in the cytoplasmic retention of Ci155. In addition, we find that adding a nuclear localization signal (NLS) to exposed regions of Ci155 greatly facilitates its nuclear translocation, suggesting that the cytoplasmic retention of Ci155 may also depend on NLS masking.

Animals↗

PubMed2006

Long-term effects of vasopressin on the subcellular localization of ENaC in the renal collecting system.

Previous studies revealed that chronic (days) vasopressin treatment stimulates amiloride-sensitive sodium transport in isolated renal cortical collecting ducts and increases the abundance of beta- and gamma-subunits of the epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) in the kidney. The aim of the present work was to investigate in vivo the cellular basis of these effects. The long-term effect of V2 vasopressin agonist (1-deamino-8-D-arginine vasopressin (dDAVP)) on the abundance and subcellular localization of ENaC along the rat renal collecting system was determined by immunohistochemistry and laser confocal microscopy. Moreover, we studied by real-time reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction the effect of vasopressin on proteins implicated in the regulation of ENaC (Nedd4-2, prostasin, Sgk1). After 5 days of administration, dDAVP markedly increased the intracellular pool of the beta- and gamma-ENaC subunits in the principal cells, with an increasing gradient from connecting tubule to the outer medullary collecting duct, but did not increase any subunit at the cell surface. The apical immunostaining of ENaC increased in response to sodium restriction, as expected, but dDAVP did not further enhance this apical labelling. dDAVP increased the gene expression of prostasin in the cortex but not that of Nedd4-2 and Sgk1. These findings suggest that the previously reported increase in sodium transport induced by sustained stimulation of vasopressin V2 receptor is probably mediated by other mechanism than an increase in the apical density of ENaC.

Aldosterone↗

PubMed1996

Subcellular localization of Suppressor of Hairless in Drosophila sense organ cells during Notch signalling.

During imaginal development of Drosophila, Suppressor of Hairless [Su(H)], an evolutionarily conserved transcription factor that mediates intracellular signalling by the Notch (N) receptor, controls successive alternative cell fate decisions leading to the differentiation of multicellular sensory organs. We describe here the distribution of the Su(H) protein in the wing disc epithelium throughout development of adult sense organs. Su(H) was found to be evenly distributed in the nuclei of all imaginal disc cells during sensory organ precursor cells selection. Thus differential expression and/or subcellular localization of Su(H) is not essential for its function. Soon after division of the pIIa secondary precursor cell, Su(H) specifically accumulates in the nucleus of the future socket cell. At the onset of differentiation of the socket cell, Su(H) is also detected in the cytoplasm. In this differentiating cell, N and deltex participate in the cytoplasmic retention of Su(H). Still, Su(H) does not colocalize with N at the apical-lateral membranes. These observations suggest that N regulates in an indirect manner the cytoplasmic localization of Su(H) in the socket cell. Finally, the pIIb, shaft and socket cells are found to adopt invariant positions along the anteroposterior axis of the notum. This raises the possibility that tissue-polarity biases these N-mediated cell fate choices.

Animals↗

PubMed2002

Subcellular localization of peroxidase in tomato fruit skin and the possible implications for the regulation of fruit growth.

The cessation of tomato fruit growth has been associated with the appearance of three 'wall-bound' peroxidase isozymes in the skin of tomato fruit. However, the presence of these isozymes in the ionically eluted 'wall-bound' fraction may be an artefact of either non-specific binding of symplastic peroxidase to the cell wall, or isozymes bound to membranes included in the 'wall-bound' fraction. Therefore, subcellular localization of peroxidase in both immature and mature tomato fruit skins was studied. Immature fruits showed intense peroxidase activity associated with the tonoplast and pro-vacuolar membranes, but little or no activity associated with the cell wall. However, the presence of peroxidase activity within the cell wall of mature green fruits was confirmed. Furthermore, peroxidase activity was also observed associated with the plasma membrane and large vesicles allied to the plasma membrane. While cross-linking in cell wall components was previously assumed to be the mechanism by which peroxidase might control fruit growth, the incorporation of 'lignin-like' phenolics may also play a part. Isoelectric focusing (IEF) of both symplastic and apoplastic peroxidase extracted from immature and mature tomato fruit skin showed that all peroxidase isozymes present were highly anionic. In this current study, histochemical techniques are used to demonstrate a developmental increase in 'lignin-like' phenolics within the sub-cuticular cell walls of the fruit skin. The localization of peroxidase within tomato fruit skin is discussed in relation to its potential role in the regulation of tomato fruit growth.

Cell Wall↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Inheritance and subcellular localization of triose-phosphate isomerase in dwarf mountain pine (Pinus mugo).

Several trees with expected heterozygous phenotype for triose-phosphate isomerase (TPI) were discovered in a population of dwarf mountain pine (Pinus mugo Turra) from southern Poland. As the inheritance of this enzyme in pines has not been reported, segregation of allelic variants was tested in eight trees with putative heterozygous phenotypes for two loci, TpiA and TPIB: Linkage between these and some other isozyme loci were studied and evidence for linkage has been found between TpiA and PgdA (r = 0.10) and between TpiB and DiaD (r = 0.36), but in single trees only. The subcellular localization of TPI isozymes was determined by comparing isoenzymes from the total extract with those found in fraction enriched in plastids, prepared by differential gradient centrifugation of cellular organelles. The more slowly migrating TPI-B isozyme is located in plastids.

Chromosome Segregation↗

PubMed2006

Subcellular localization and membrane topology of the Dengue virus type 2 Non-structural protein 4B.

Dengue virus (DV) is a member of the family Flaviviridae. These positive strand RNA viruses encode a polyprotein that is processed in case of DV into 10 proteins. Although for most of these proteins distinct functions have been defined, this is less clear for the highly hydrophobic non-structural protein (NS) 4B. Despite its possible role as an antagonist of the interferon-induced antiviral response, this protein may play an additional more direct role for viral replication. In this study we determined the subcellular localization, membrane association, and membrane topology of DV NS4B. We found that NS4B resides primarily in cytoplasmic foci originating from the endoplasmic reticulum. NS4B colocalizes with NS3 and double-stranded RNA, an intermediate of viral replication, arguing that NS4B is part of the membrane-bound viral replication complex. Biochemical analysis revealed that NS4B is an integral membrane protein, and that its preceding 2K signal sequence is not required for this integration. We identified three membrane-spanning segments in the COOH-terminal part of NS4B that are sufficient to target a cytosolic marker protein to intracellular membranes. Furthermore, we established a membrane topology model of NS4B in which the NH2-terminal part of the protein is localized in the endoplasmic reticulum lumen, whereas the COOH-terminal part is composed of three trans-membrane domains with the COOH-terminal tail localized in the cytoplasm. This topology model provides a good starting point for a detailed investigation of the function of NS4B in the DV life cycle.

Amino Acid Sequence↗

PubMed1996

Accumulation kinetics of CMV RNA 3-encoded proteins and subcellular localization of the 3a protein in infected and transgenic tobacco plants.

The complete nucleotide sequence of RNA 3 of a Spanish isolate of cucumber mosaic virus (CMV-24) has been determined. The encoded putative cell-to-cell movement protein (3a protein) and the coat protein are 279 and 218 amino acids long, respectively. The 3a protein was expressed in Escherichia coli using the vector pT7-7 and was used to raise an immunoserum. We have followed the time course of accumulation of the 3a protein, in parallel to that of the coat protein, and its subcellular localization as a function of time after CMV-24 infection on tobacco plants. The maximum accumulation level of the 3a protein was reached at early stages of infection, being detected in the cytosolic and the cell wall fractions. At later stages of infection, a decline in accumulation levels of the 3a protein was observed, and the protein was essentially associated with the cell wall fractions. These data were corroborated by immunocytochemistry performed in both infected and 3a-expressing transgenic tobacco plants.

Base Sequence↗

PubMed1999

Subcellular localization of interferon-inducible Myc/stat-interacting protein Nmi is regulated by a novel IFP 35 homologous domain.

Nmi was initially identified through a yeast two-hybrid interaction with N-Myc but it also interacts with c-Myc, Max, Fos, and several other transcription factors, including signal transducer and activator of transcription (Stat) proteins. Nmi is an interferon (IFN)-inducible protein with 25% amino acid identity to the IFN-inducible protein IFP 35. We have found that this homology consists of a novel domain of approximately 90-92 amino acids (aa) that is repeated in tandem in each protein. This region, termed Nmi/IFP 35 domain (NID), is important for subcellular localization of Nmi. Full-length Nmi protein or deletion constructs containing a single NID are localized to the cytoplasm, but amino-terminal Nmi fragments of up to 92 aa containing neither NID are nuclear. Fusion of the amino-terminal end of Nmi to pyruvate kinase, an exclusively cytoplasmic protein, results in a cytoplasmic fusion protein, suggesting that the amino-terminal end of Nmi does not contain a classic nuclear localization signal (NLS). Fusion of the amino-terminal end of Nmi to green fluorescent protein (GFP), which is normally found in both nuclear and cytoplasmic compartments, does not alter GFP distribution, whereas fusion of a single NID to GFP targets the fusion to the cytoplasm. Fusion of a nuclear localization signal (NLS) to full-length Nmi or NID repeats targets the hybrid to the nucleus, suggesting that a strong NLS is dominant to the cytoplasmic localization function of NID. NID may mediate cytoplasmic localization of the full-length Nmi protein through NID-NID protein interactions as demonstrated by yeast two-hybrid assay, immunoprecipitation, and the presence of Nmi in a high molecular weight protein complex. These results suggest that Nmi is composed of a modular structure with an amino-terminal domain that when separated from the rest of the protein is nuclear. The carboxy-terminal two thirds of the protein is composed of two NID that mediate cytoplasmic localization of the full-length protein.

Amino Acid Sequence↗

PubMed2000

Biochemical characterization of S100A2 in human keratinocytes: subcellular localization, dimerization, and oxidative cross-linking.

S100A2 is a calmodulin-like protein of unknown function, whose transcription is positively regulated in response to ErbB and p53 signaling. Expression of S100A2 is markedly increased in the context of ErbB-driven reactive epidermal hyperplasia, and decreased in the context of hypofunctional p53 mutations in carcinoma cell lines and tumors. This bimodal pattern of regulation suggests an important function for S100A2 in keratinocyte differentiation and carcinogenesis. Taking the biochemical approach to the determination of S100A2 function, we have characterized its physical state and subcellular localization in normal human keratinocytes. S100A2 in hypotonic lysates remained soluble after centrifugation at 100 000 x g, indicating that it is not associated with cell membranes. Permeabilization experiments confirmed the lack of membrane association and revealed a digitonin-insoluble nuclear fraction of S100A2, which was confirmed by immunofluorescence microscopy. Pulldown assays of epitope-tagged S100A2 and yeast two-hybrid screening revealed that S100A2 displays a strong propensity to homodimerize. Naturally expressed S100A2 dimers in normal human keratinocytes readily underwent intermolecular disulfide cross-linking unless a strong denaturant was present during cell lysis. Treatment of intact normal human keratinocytes with hydrogen peroxide strongly promoted S100A2 cross-linking. These results demonstrate that native S100A2 is a homodimer that does not depend on disulfide cross-linking for stability, but undergoes intermolecular cross-linking at cysteine residues in response to oxidative stress. Based on these findings, we propose that S100A2 may protect normal keratinocytes against carcinogens by participating in the cellular proof-reading response to oxidative stress.

Antibodies, Monoclonal↗