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PubMed1998

Molecular genetic approaches to the study of language.

The application of the techniques of modern molecular biology to the study of the genetic control of language development poses many significant challenges. Because language is a complex function, disruption of any of a number of systems can impair language development. The diagnostic classification of specific language impairment includes individuals with an apparently inherited form of disordered language development, and therefore some aspects of this clinical phenotype may be useful for positional cloning studies of genes related to language. Known genetic disorders with specific deficits in language functions may also serve to identify candidate genes for language development. In addition to these specific approaches, the current general strategies for positional cloning and candidate gene studies are reviewed.

Animals↗

PubMed1994

Quantitative and qualitative evaluation of patterns of cerebral language dominance. An amobarbital study.

As a part of presurgical evaluation, 173 patients received bilateral intracarotid amobarbital tests for determination of cerebral language dominance. Language testing during intracarotid amobarbital procedures (IAP) consisted of the following tasks: automatic speech, sentence comprehension, body commands, naming, repetition, reading, and spontaneous speech. Patterns of cerebral language dominance were evaluated and discussed on five levels of analysis: (1) quantification of language dominance on the basis of a lateralization index derived from the total language scores in each IAP; (2) determination of five dominance subpatterns (left or right dominant, strongly bilateral, and incomplete left or right dominant) according to quantification performed on level (1) and clinical judgement; (3) qualitative differentiation of three kinds of bilaterality (positive, negative, and general) according to total language performance in left and right IAP; (4) analysis of grouped linguistic subfunctions extracted from performance in specific IAP subtests; (5) extraordinary individual case histories. The distribution of lateralization indices revealed only partially continuous degrees of lateralization, especially between the left-dominant and bilateral subgroups. As for the clinically oriented classification, incomplete left dominance is frequent (16.2%), while incomplete right dominance does not occur at all. Atypical dominance patterns are mostly correlated to bilateral and/or extratemporal foci. Concerning grouped subfunctions, a rotated factor matrix statistic yields an analysis of clusters of IAP subtests, where functions involving expressive language capacities are separated from those that are purely receptive. Further analyses of bilaterality subpatterns suggest that there are mainly four bilaterality phenomena, namely interhemispheric dissociation, double representation, unilateral representation of subfunctions, and partial representation of subfunctions in either hemisphere. Application of these differentiations to individual cases yields additional evidence that can be used in patient selection for operation in order to avoid postoperative neuropsychological deficits, especially in candidates for extratemporal surgery. In conclusion, a multilevel analysis of IAP language data is recommended since it permits a detailed account of varieties of language dominance patterns and contributes to more adequate presurgical decision-making in planned operations in cognitively relevant brain areas.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2000

Right Hemisphere Language Dominance in a Right-Handed Patient with Late-Onset Seizures.

Right hemisphere language dominance is rare in right-handed individuals and usually the result of language transfer associated with early left hemisphere pathology. We studied a 33-year-old right-handed man, with a normal MRI scan, who developed left frontal lobe seizures at age 15 years. Language lateralization testing by intracarotid amobarbital injection and dichotic listening showed the patient to be strongly right hemisphere language dominant. The clinical features of this patient do not fit the profile of pathology-induced language transfer, but instead suggest that he was right hemisphere language dominant before developing seizures. This case underscores the importance of language lateralization testing in patients who are candidates for seizure surgery, even if they are strongly right-handed and have late-onset seizures, features usually associated with left hemisphere language dominance. One implication is that the incidence of right hemisphere language dominance in the right-handed population may be underestimated.

Journal Article↗

PubMed2001

Treatment of Childhood Idiopathic Language Deterioration with Valproate.

Childhood idiopathic language deterioration is a rare condition in which children lose previously gained language skills. In some children this language deterioration occurs in association with behavioral seizures or EEG epileptiform activity. The effectiveness of antiepileptic drugs in this patient population is not known. Here we retrospectively reviewed records of 57 children with childhood idiopathic language deterioration associated with seizures or epileptiform activity on their EEG who received valproate for the purpose of treating their language impairment. In 22 of the children improvement in language skills was observed. In two children language returned to normal while in the other 20 the improvement was modest. Children who responded to valproate had an earlier age of onset of the aphasia than children who were nonresponders. Seizure type, EEG findings, developmental status, and presence or absence of a frequency-modulated auditory evoked potential were not related to response. This study demonstrates that valproate can be helpful in improving language function in some children with idiopathic language deterioration associated with seizures or epileptiform activity on the EEG.

Journal Article↗

PubMed2007

Involuntary language switching in two bilingual patients during the Wada test and intraoperative electrocortical stimulation.

We present two bilingual patients without language disorders in whom involuntary language switching was induced. The first patient switched from Dutch to English during a left-sided amobarbital (Wada) test. Functional magnetic resonance imaging yielded a predominantly left-sided language distribution similar for both languages. The second patient switched from French to Chinese during intraoperative electrocortical stimulation of the left inferior frontal gyrus. We conclude that the observed language switching in both cases was not likely the result of a selective inhibition of one language, but the result of a temporary disruption of brain areas that are involved in language switching. These data complement the few lesion studies on (involuntary or unintentional) language switching, and add to the functional neuroimaging studies of switching, monitoring, and controlling the language in use.

Adult↗

PubMed2005

Impact of language proficiency and orthographic transparency on bilingual word reading: an fMRI investigation.

The purpose of the present functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) investigation was to examine how language proficiency and orthographic transparency (letter-sound mapping consistency) modulate neural activity during bilingual single word reading. Spanish-English bilingual participants, more fluent in their second language (L2; English) than their native language (L1; Spanish), were asked to read words in the two languages. Behavioral results showed that participants were significantly slower in reading words in their less proficient language (Spanish) than in their more proficient language (English). fMRI results also revealed that reading words in the less proficient language yielded greater activity in the articulatory motor system, consisting of supplementary motor area/cingulate, insula, and putamen. Together, the behavioral and fMRI results suggest that the less practiced, hence less proficient, language requires greater articulatory motor effort, which results in slower reading rates. Moreover, we found that orthographic transparency also played a neuromodulatory role. More transparent Spanish words yielded greater activity in superior temporal gyrus (STG; BA 22), a region implicated in phonological processing, and orthographically opaque English words yielded greater activity in visual processing and word recoding regions, such as the occipito-parietal border and inferior parietal lobe (IPL; BA 40). Overall, our fMRI results suggest that the articulatory motor system is more plastic, hence, more amenable to change because of greater exposure to the L2. By contrast, we propose that our orthography effect is less plastic, hence, less influenced by frequency of exposure to a language system.

Adult↗

PubMed2005

The invasion of language: emergence, change and death.

Research into the emergence and evolution of human language has received unprecedented attention during the past 15 years. Efforts to better understand the processes of language emergence and evolution have proceeded in two main directions: from the top-down (linguists) and from the bottom-up (cognitive scientists). Language can be viewed as an invading process that has had profound impact on the human phenotype at all levels, from the structure of the brain to modes of cultural interaction. In our view, the most effective way to form a connection between the two efforts (essential if theories for language evolution are to reflect the constraints imposed on language by the brain) lies in computational modelling, an approach that enables numerous hypotheses to be explored and tested against objective criteria and which suggest productive paths for empirical researchers to then follow. Here, with the aim of promoting the cross-fertilization of ideas across disciplines, we review some of the recent research that has made use of computational methods in three principal areas of research into language evolution: language emergence, language change, and language death.

Journal Article↗

PubMed2002

Within- and between-language priming differ: evidence from repetition of pictures in Spanish-English bilinguals.

In the current study, the authors used an immediate repetition paradigm with pictures to observe whether repetition enhances word production in bilinguals. In Experiment 1, participants were asked to name pictures that were named previously in the same language (Spanish-Spanish or English-English) or in the opposite language (Spanish-English or English-Spanish). Results revealed a repetition effect both within languages and between languages. Furthermore, there was an asymmetry within language, with repetition priming being larger in Spanish than in English. Experiments 2 and 3 revealed that lag interacted with language for both within- and between-language priming. However, lag resulted in a decrease in the asymmetry for within- but not between-language priming. The results are consistent with the view that within- and between-language repetition priming are mediated by different mechanisms.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1988

Analysis of tongue positions: language-specific and cross-linguistic models.

A factor-analytic model, PARAFAC, has been shown to yield highly significant and interpretable results when applied to the analysis of tongue shapes in particular languages. However, the forms of the solutions differ from language to language. A conceptual model that provides an account for cross-language variability in terms of coordinative structures that may vary in a language-specific manner is developed. This model rationalizes both the success of the PARAFAC procedure within languages and the poor cross-language replicability of PARAFAC solutions. We consider methods for quantitatively comparing the results of PARAFAC analyses of data from different languages using data from Icelandic and English as a test case. A cross-language factor solution that accounts for 90% of the variance in tongue position measurements is presented and interpreted in terms of the conceptual model.

Humans↗

PubMed1997

Human brain language areas identified by functional magnetic resonance imaging.

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (FMRI) was used to identify candidate language processing areas in the intact human brain. Language was defined broadly to include both phonological and lexical-semantic functions and to exclude sensory, motor, and general executive functions. The language activation task required phonetic and semantic analysis of aurally presented words and was compared with a control task involving perceptual analysis of nonlinguistic sounds. Functional maps of the entire brain were obtained from 30 right-handed subjects. These maps were averaged in standard stereotaxic space to produce a robust "average activation map" that proved reliable in a split-half analysis. As predicted from classical models of language organization based on lesion data, cortical activation associated with language processing was strongly lateralized to the left cerebral hemisphere and involved a network of regions in the frontal, temporal, and parietal lobes. Less consistent with classical models were (1) the existence of left hemisphere temporoparietal language areas outside the traditional "Wernicke area," namely, in the middle temporal, inferior temporal, fusiform, and angular gyri; (2) extensive left prefrontal language areas outside the classical "Broca area"; and (3) clear participation of these left frontal areas in a task emphasizing "receptive" language functions. Although partly in conflict with the classical model of language localization, these findings are generally compatible with reported lesion data and provide additional support for ongoing efforts to refine and extend the classical model.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1992

Stability of the intelligence quotient-language quotient relation: is discrepancy modeling based on a myth?

Diagnostic and service eligibility decisions are often made on the basis of the relation between assessments of cognitive ability and assessments of language ability. A discrepancy between cognitive and language performance, with cognition being higher, is thought to be a positive predictor of ability to benefit from intervention. This triage model assumes reasonable stability of cognitive and language measures over time. We evaluated the stability, over 1- and 2-year periods, of the relation between a cognitive measure and two language measures. We examined whether the cognitive-language relation for these measures changed significantly over time and whether children remained in the same service eligibility category, based on the discrepancy model, over time. Results indicated substantial changes in the cognitive-language relation over time. Children's eligibility for service, based on the discrepancy model, also fluctuated greatly over time. We conclude that a discrepancy model of triage based on broad cognitive and language measures is not an effective means of determining who should receive service. Alternative triage methods were presented.

Child↗

PubMed1990

An ecological approach to language development: an alternative functionalism.

I argue for a new functionalist approach to language development, an ecological approach. A realist orientation is used that locates the causes of language development neither in the child nor in the language environment but in the functioning of perceptual systems that detect language-world relationships and use them to guide attention and action. The theory requires no concept of innateness, thus avoiding problems inherent in either the innate ideas or the genes-as-causal-programs explanations of the source of structure in language. An ecological explanation of language is discussed in relation to concepts and language, language as representation, problems in early word learning, metaphor, and syntactic development. Finally, problems incurred in using the idea of innateness are summarized: History prior to the chosen beginning point is ignored, data on organism-environment mutuality are not collected, and the explanation claims no effect of learning, which cannot be tested empirically.

Child Language↗

PubMed1991

Neologisms and idiosyncratic language in autistic speakers.

Language samples from matched groups of 80 autistic, mentally handicapped, and normally developing children were coded for the presence of neologisms and/or idiosyncratic language use. Cognitive, social, or linguistic factors that might account for these errors were identified and assessed. More autistic subjects used neologisms and idiosyncratic language than age- and language skill-matched control groups. No single factor or combination of factors was responsible for this difference. Across diagnostic groups, similar patterns of error were noted, except that the autistic subjects were more likely to use words inappropriately that had no phonological or semantic similarity to the intended English word. For the autistic groups, the frequency of idiosyncratic language increased with language complexity. In contrast, such errors decreased with language skill in the mentally handicapped group. Theoretical implications for determining the nature and source of the language disorder associated with autism are discussed.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2005

[Diagnosis and differentiation of children with language development disorders. What role can be attributed to intelligence?].

BACKGROUND: Specific language impairment (SLI) is defined as a developmental disorder in which language comprehension and the child's ability to use expressive spoken language is markedly below the appropriate level for his or her mental age. The intelligence of SLI children is in the normal range, while their language abilities are impaired. "Normal intelligence", the defining feature of SLI is questioned in this study. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Using IDIS (an inventory of diagnostic information in language impairment), we examined 138 children aged 5 and 6 years with severe language impairment; 108 SLI and 30 LI children. Various indicators of speech and language such as articulation, the ability to discriminate sounds, lexicon, grammar and pragmatic abilities but also auditory and visual perception, auditory and visual memory, fine and gross motor function were assessed. RESULTS: The performance of the SLI children was significantly higher in most of the tests than that of the LI children. Factor analysis showed that the two groups also differed in the structure of performance. Auditory short-term memory was reduced in most children irrespective of intelligence. CONCLUSIONS: We propose the retention of the differentiation of subgroups of developmental speech and language disorders depending on the level of intelligence.

Child↗

PubMed1990

The effects of learning two languages on levels of metalinguistic awareness.

The purpose of this study is to determine whether a bilingual environment-the juxtaposition of two language systems learned simultaneously-enhances children's awareness of the language(s) they are learning to speak. The study explores the development of metalinguistic awareness at three different levels of explicit knowledge about language in monolingual children, and assesses the effects of a bilingual experience on this developmental process. To observe the development of metalinguistic awareness and to test the bilingual hypothesis, we compared metalinguistic skills in 32 Spanish-speaking and 32 English-speaking monolinguals and in 32 Spanish-English bilinguals aged 4:5 to 8:0. The Spanish and English metalinguistic tests each contained 15 different ungrammatical constructions (e.g., "Steven and Robert is a brother") and 15 grammatically correct "fillers." For each item, the children were asked in the appropriate language to note whether the construction was correct or incorrect, to correct the errors they noted, and to explain why those errors were wrong. We found that the monolingual children followed the same sequence in acquiring the ability to detect, to correct, and to explain grammatical errors; in particular, they progressed from a content-based orientation to a form-based orientation to language at each of the three levels. However, we noted different outcomes in terms of the types of grammatical constructions that were easy for monolinguals to master at each level-the constructions that were easy to detect and correct were distinct from those that were easy to explain. The bilingual experience was found to speed the transition from a content-based to a form-based approach to language at certain levels of awareness (detection and correction), but had less of an effect on explanations. Moreover, the bilingual experience did not appear to affect the types of grammatical constructions that were easy to master at any of the three levels. These data suggest that the experience of learning two languages hastens the development of certain metalinguistic skills in young children, but does not alter the course of that development. Thus, while learning two languages may enhance a speaker's "ear" for regularities of form, it does not appear to augment his grammatical "mind" for understanding those regularities.

Awareness↗

PubMed1994

Follow-up of children at risk for language problems.

Nineteen students (ages 10-14) who were previously identified as at risk for language problems were examined after a period of five to seven years. Information concerning cognitive, academic, and linguistic skills was collected using standardized and informal measures. Results were analyzed for the total group and also for two subgroups. At the time of follow-up, seven subjects (37%) who had not been served by a speech-language pathologist (SLP) were unidentified with language impairments (LI); two subjects (11%) were being seen by a SLP; one subject (5%) was identified as mentally handicapped, and nine subjects (47%) did not exhibit language problems. Subgroup comparisons between the seven unidentified language impaired subjects (LI) and the nine without language impairments (contrast = CG) revealed lower language scores, especially for receptive and composite language as measured by the CELF-R and TLC-E. Teachers rated these two groups (LI and CG) differently in the areas of following/giving directions, initiating/maintaining conversation, and taking turns. Parents also reported greater concerns for the LI group in the areas of listening, communication, and social skills. Issues concerning identification of at-risk groups and future studies using at-risk populations are discussed.

Achievement↗

PubMed1979

Effect of middle-ear dysfunction and disease on hearing and language in high-risks infants.

The effect of middle-ear dysfunction and disease on hearing and language development at one year of age was evaluated for 143 high-risk infants. These infants were categorized as normal or abnormal based on otologic history, otoscopic examinations, and on tympanometric examinations. Language was significantly related to gestational age, being delayed by approximately the amount of prematurity. Language scores were therefore adjusted for gestational age. Speech-detection threshold was not related to gestational age, and was used as the measure of hearing. Hearing levels were negatively correlated with adjusted language quotients. Infants with abnormal otologic histories reported were not different from infants with normal histories in either hearing or language development. Infants with bilateral otoscopic abnormalities had significantly higher speech-detection thresholds, but did not differ in language development from those with bilaterally normal otoscopy. Infants who were abnormal bilaterally by tympanometric examination had significantly higher speech-detection thresholds as well as significantly delayed language development. A significant effect on both hearing and language was found among those infants bilaterally abnormal by tympanometry for whom evidence of middle-ear disease was not visualized by otoscopic examination. Implications of these findings are discussed.

Hearing Disorders↗

PubMed1997

Native-language recognition abilities in 4-month-old infants from monolingual and bilingual environments.

This study examined the capacity of 4-month-old infants to identify their maternal language when phonologically similar languages are contrasted, using a visual orientation procedure with a reaction time measure. Infants from monolingual and bilingual environments were compared in order to analyze whether differences in linguistic background affect this behavioral response. In experiment 1 the validity of the procedure was assessed with a pair of phonologically dissimilar languages (Catalan or Spanish vs. English). In experiment 2, 20 infants from monolingual environments tested in a similar language contrast (Catalan vs. Spanish) indicated that discrimination is already possible at that age. Results from experiment 3, using low-pass filtered utterances, suggested that infants can rely on information about supra-segmental features to make this distinction. For the infants growing up in bilingual environments no preference for either of the familiar languages was found. Moreover, when their maternal language was contrasted either with English or with Italian, in both cases the bilingual group showed a similar pattern, consisting of significantly longer latencies for the familiar language. Possible interpretations of this unexpected pattern of results are discussed and its implications for bilingual language acquisition are considered.

Child Language↗