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PubMed1995

A kinematic comparison of overground and treadmill running.

Treadmills are often used in research projects to simulate overground locomotion, assuming that locomotion is similar on a treadmill and overground. The purpose of this investigation was to determine whether a treadmill could be used to simulate overground locomotion. Twenty-two subjects ran on four different surfaces: overground and three treadmills that differed in size and power. The kinematics of the right leg and foot were studied using two high-speed Locam cameras (lateral and posterior view). The subjects ran in two different shoes at four different speeds (3.0-6.0 m.s-1). The differences in the kinematics between treadmill and overground running could be divided into systematic and subject dependent components. Subjects systematically planted their feet in a flatter position on the treadmill than overground. Most of the lower extremity kinematic variables, however, showed inconsistent trends for individual subjects, depending on the individual subject's running style, running speed, and shoe/treadmill situation. The differences were substantial. It is not yet understood how the human locomotor system adapts to a particular treadmill running situation. However, it is concluded that individual assessment of running kinematics on a treadmill for shoe or shoe orthotic assessment may possibly lead to inadequate conclusions about overground running.

Adaptation, Physiological↗

PubMed1993

Ventilatory threshold, heart rate deflection point and middle distance running performance.

Physiological measures of performance capacity have traditionally centered around the measurement of maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max). This study examined the relationship between maximal and submaximal laboratory measures of performance and running times within a group of trained middle distance runners. Analysis of the data obtained from 10 male and 2 female athletes identified the running velocity corresponding to the Ventilatory Threshold [(VT) (mean +/- SD = 15.3 +/- 2.36 km.h-1. treadmill speed)] as the major correlate with 3000 m (r = -0.984, n = 12) running performance. Treadmill speed corresponding with the heart rate deflection point [(Vd) (mean +/- SD = 16.75 +/- 2.38)] and the VO2max (mean +/- SD = 55 +/- 6 ml.kg-1.min-1) was also highly correlated (r = 0.94 and r = 0.82 respectively, n = 12) with 3000 m running performance. The running velocity corresponding with VT alone explained 96.3% of the variance in 3000 m performance time. The addition of VO2max and Vd using multiple regression analysis did not further improve significantly the predictive value of the physiological measures. The results of this study support the laboratory estimation of physiological measures such as Vd and VT in the assessment of middle distance running performance.

Adult↗

PubMed1993

Mechanism, diagnosis, and treatment of running injuries.

Today running is an integral part of many people's lives. Despite an increased focus on the prevention of running injuries, overuse injuries are still rather frequent. It is important to identify the cause of the injury and treat the cause, not merely the symptoms. Of these injuries, 60% to 80% are associated with extrinsic factors, such as training errors and changes in running activities. Intrinsic factors are also common, especially malalignments, including excessive pronation and cavus foot. These changes are associated with common over-use injuries, but specific anatomic abnormalities and abnormal biomechanics of the lower extremity are not correlated with specific injuries on a predictable basis. Factors such as leg-length discrepancy, poor flexibility, muscle weakness and imbalance, deficit in neuromuscular coordination, and ligamentous laxity can also cause running injuries. Acquired or secondary factors, such as kinetic chain dysfunctions, are more common than previously acknowledged. Many running injuries, especially in patients with recurrent and previous injuries, are manifestations of a dysfunction of the kinetic chain. For this reason, it is important to examine the symmetry of stance and gait, and to look for abnormalities in both static and dynamic alignment and function. The whole kinetic chain must be carefully screened to rule out any underlying injuries or dysfunction. This process is difficult and requires experience and knowledge, especially because the cause of injury may be remote from the site of injury. The treatment of running injuries involves both a specific diagnosis, based on the primary problem, and the identification of kinetic chain dysfunctions. In order to be successful, treatment must be based on the specific diagnosis.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Adolescent↗

PubMed1996

Running economy, preferred step length correlated to body dimensions in elite middle distance runners.

The purpose of this research was to study the relationship between running economy, step length, and body dimensions. Elite middle distance runners were tested for one high submaximal volocity very close to usual training speeds, near the anaerobic threshold (15 km.h-1) and one low submaximal velocity very different to usual training speeds, near the speed transition between walking and running (9 km.h-1). All the subjects were selected after a maximal protocol to be homogeneous on VO2max (65.7 +/- 2.3 ml.kg-1.min-1). Then they were monitored during two submaximal tread-mill tests at 54.4 +/- 2.2% (9 km.h-1) and 78.5 +/- 3.9% VO2max (15 km.h-1). Body weight, body fat, height, sitting height, low extremity length (height - sitting height), relative low extremity length, leg length, thigh length, foot length were determined. The results indicate an effect of the running speed on the relationship between body dimensions, step length and VO2. The relation was inverse between running economy, body dimensions at 9 and 15 km.h-1 and no significant correlation was found for running economy between these two speeds. Furthermore, the mode of expressing VO2 in ml.kg-0.75.min-1 affects these relations. Thus, this result allows us to make the assumption that mechanisms of adaptation can be different according to the running speed, and the specific constraints that it represents for each subject.

Adipose Tissue↗

PubMed1996

Cross-training between cycling and running in untrained females.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of the study was to evaluate the cross-training response between running and cycling in untrained females. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: The following study involved a pretest, post-test, 3 x 3 factorial design. SETTING: Training (4 days-week-1, 10 weeks, 70-80% heart rate reserve) occurred at the Center for Exercise and Applied Human Physiology. Exercise testing occurred at the Veterans Hospital, Exercise Laboratory. PATIENTS AND PARTICIPANTS: Subjects included healthy, untrained females aged 18-25 years, (N = 18). INTERVENTION: Subjects were assigned to one of three (n = 6) training groups (run = R, cycle = C, both run and cycle = RC) matched on pre-training CE VO2max results. MEASURES: Graded treadmill run (TR) and cycle ergometer (CE) tests were performed on each subject to determine a mode specific VO2max and the lactate threshold (LT). Graded arm ergometer (AE) was performed to determine VO2max and heart rate and blood lactate at 20 and 40 Watts (W). Testing occurred prior to (0T), after 5 (5T) and after 10 weeks of training (10T). Body fat testing (hydrodensitometry at residual lung volume) was performed at 0T and 10T. RESULTS: TR and CE VO2max as well as TR and CE VO2 at the LT improved throughout the 10 weeks, regardless of training group. Although there were no changes in VO2max or blood lactate levels during AE, submaximal heart rates were significantly reduced over the 10 weeks, regardless of training group. CONCLUSIONS: These results indicate that the aerobic benefits of either run, cycle or combined run and cycle training are similar in untrained females. The LT and AE heart rate data demonstrate that improvements in VOmax due to ten weeks of training are a result of pronounced peripheral and moderate central adaptations.

Adipose Tissue↗

PubMed1997

Common overuse running injuries: diagnosis and management.

Running injuries are primarily caused by overuse due to training errors (i.e., running too far, too fast, too soon). A stress fracture should always be considered in a runner with pain, because long-term morbidity may occur if this injury is not recognized. The history and physical examination are usually sufficient to diagnose an overuse injury. Runners should be instructed to increase their mileage gradually in increments of 10 percent or less each week, to wear proper running shoes and to perform stretching and strengthening exercises for the lower extremities on a regular basis. In addition, they should not attempt to "run through pain." Treatment of overuse running injuries includes relative rest, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, cross-training and stretching exercises, with a return to running as tolerated. Correction of biomechanical problems with the use of orthotics may be an adjunctive treatment measure.

Adult↗

PubMed1997

Testing homogeneity of intra-run variance parameters in immunoassay.

A common assumption in the analysis of immunoassay data is a similar pattern of within-run variation across runs of the assays. One makes this assumption without formal investigation of its validity, despite the widely acknowledged fact that accurate understanding of intra-run variation is critical to reliable calibration inference. We propose a simple procedure for a formal test of the assumption of the homogeneity of parameters that characterize intra-run variation based on representation of standard curve data from multiple assay runs by a non-linear mixed effects model. We examine the performance of the procedure and investigate the robustness of calibration inference to incorrect assumptions about the pattern of intra-run variation.

Calibration↗

PubMed1998

Wheel running simultaneously induces CTA and facilitates feeding in non-deprived rats. Conditioned taste aversion.

Previous findings indicate that wheel running can have either an aversive or an appetitive effect. That is, wheel running for 30 min induces conditioned taste aversion (CTA) in rats trained while hungry and thirsty but facilitates feeding in non-deprived rats. In Experiment 1, wheel running was also found to be effective in producing CTA in non-deprived rats. Therefore, Experiment 2 tested whether wheel running produces the aversive and appetitive effects simultaneously. During each of four training trials, two groups of non-deprived rats were given a flavored solution to drink for 10 min. Then those in the wheel group were put in running wheels for 30 min whereas those in the cage group spent 30 min in small cages. Finally, all rats were given a 60-min feeding test. After the first trial, the wheel group drank less flavored solution than the cage group during each of the remaining trials. The wheel group also ate more than the cage group on each feeding test. These results indicate that wheel running produces CTA and facilitates eating at the same time. A role for the mesolimbic dopamine reward system in these effects was considered.

Animals↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Conditioned ethanol aversion in rats induced by voluntary wheel running, forced swimming, and electric shock: an implication for aversion therapy of alcoholism.

This study was planned to demonstrate rats' acquisition of aversion to ethanol solution consumed before voluntary running, forced swimming, or electric shock delivery. Wistar rats under water deprivation were allotted to four groups of eight rats each, and all rats were allowed to drink 5% ethanol solution for 15 min. Immediately after the ethanol drinking, rats of Group Run were put into the individual running wheels for 15 min, those of Group Swim were put into the individual swimming pools for 15 min, those of Group Shock received electric shocks for 15 min (15 0.45-mA shocks of 0.7s with the intershock interval of 1 min) in the individual small chambers, and those of Group Control were directly returned back to the home cages. This procedure was repeated for six days, followed by a two-day choice test of ethanol aversion where a bottle containing 5% ethanol solution and a bottle of tap water were simultaneously presented for 15 min. In the test, Groups Run, Swim, and Shock drank ethanol solution significantly less than tapwater, while Group Control drank both fluids equally. The effects of running, swimming, and shock were equivalent. The successful demonstration of acquired ethanol aversion induced by exercise (running and swimming) or shock in rats suggests an avenue for clinical application of exercise and shock treatments for human alcoholics, though there are many issues to be resolved before the practical use.

Alcohol Drinking↗

PubMed1995

The hit-and-run in fatal pedestrian accidents: victims, circumstances and drivers.

Hit-and-run pedestrian fatalities are classified as to victim characteristics, accident circumstances and driver characteristics. Over 18,000 pedestrian fatalities are reported in the Fatal Accident Recording System for 1989-1991. Twenty percent of the drivers involved left the accident scene. Children and senior citizens are the least likely to be left. Drivers more commonly run in urban areas, outside the South, on weekends and at night. Comparing motorists who left the scene but were later identified with the drivers who remained, drivers aged 66 and older are half as likely as younger drivers to leave the accident scene and male drivers are 60% more likely than female drivers to run. Drivers with previous driving while intoxicated arrests are twice as likely to run as those with no such arrests. Forty-nine percent of hit-and-run motorists involved in pedestrian fatalities are ultimately identified by the police. Other factors constant, drivers are more likely to be identified if the victim was female or a child. Drivers are identified 2.5 times as often when the incident occurred in daylight. Drivers appear to run more often when they are at fault and will be severely punished (e.g. when they are intoxicated) and when it is likely that they can escape detection (e.g. at night).

Accidents, Traffic↗

PubMed1984

Physiological and ergonomics factors in running shoe design.

Various features of the design of running shoes have been known to affect the performance and safety of athletes. The performance related effects of shoe design on traction and on the economy of locomotion are reviewed in this paper. Traction measurements in various types of running shoes and on various surfaces appear adequate for all but running on wet asphalt roads. Future designs should improve traction for those conditions. Effects on the economy of locomotion as small as 1% can be determined using conventional oxygen uptake measurements. The effect of carrying extra weight on the foot during running has been measured at 1% per 100 g per foot. The cost of carrying similar weights is much lower for walking or for running when the weight is carried nearer the body's centre of mass. Cushioning and other features of shoe design besides weight have been shown to have significant effects on the economy of locomotion. Optimum designs for maximising running performance should provide sufficient traction, minimal weight and maximum cushioning.

Journal Article↗

PubMed1994

The interaction of thyroid state, MAOI drug treatment, and light on the level and circadian pattern of wheel-running in rats.

In order to examine the relationship between thyroid status, the circadian system, and antidepressant drug response, the antidepressant drug clorgyline, a monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOI), was administered chronically to sham-operated or thyroparathyroidectomized rats. Wheel-running was monitored continuously in a light-dark (LD) cycle, and then in constant dim light. In LD, MAOI treatment increased levels of running. This effect was delayed in hypothyroid rats relative to euthyroid rats. In constant light, the MAOI-induced increase in running was diminished in euthyroid but not hypothyroid animals. Hypothyroid animals were less responsive to the change in lighting than were euthyroid animals, and this was more apparent in hypothyroid rats given MAOI. The daily pattern of running differed with lighting condition as well as with treatment group. MAOI-treatment of hypothyroid animals phase-advanced the pattern of wheel-running. MAOI-treatment of control animals increased the amplitude of wheel-running particularly in the LD cycle. These results indicate that thyroid status, lighting, and MAOI treatment interact to alter the behavioral response to chronic drug treatment.

Animals↗

PubMed1982

Effects of wheel running on food intake and weight gain of male and female rats.

Adult male and female rats were housed in a sedentary condition or given free access to a running wheel for 50 days. Running wheel activity of female rats was higher than that of males throughout the experiment. Food intake, of both male and female rats that could take exercise increased, and the rate of increase of females was greater than that of males. In both males and females there was a positive correlation between food intake and running wheel activity. These findings suggest that the sex difference in the rate of increase in food intake elicited by wheel running is at least partly explained by the sex difference in running wheel activity. Although food intake increased as a function of running wheel activity, the weight gains of both sexes were slower than those of sedentary rats. In both sexes this slower weight gain was mainly due to less accumulation of fat.

Animals↗

PubMed1985

Schedule-induced wheel-running: effects of exposure to the schedule.

Rats were given access to a running wheel from a chamber where milk was delivered according to a fixed-time 1-min schedule. For most animals the effect of the schedule was to decrease wheel-running rate below that during massed reinforcement control sessions. With further exposure to the schedule wheel-running rate tended to increase and a well-defined temporal pattern developed. Subsequent exposure to the control condition caused an initial increase and then, in most cases, a decline in wheel-running rate. Re-exposure to the schedule increased wheel-running rates in three out of four subjects and the temporal pattern developed more rapidly. Judgement as to whether a particular behavior pattern is schedule-induced or not can only be reliably made when there is strong evidence that the overall rate and temporal pattern of the behavior are stable. Wheel-running appears to be a schedule-induced behavior under some experimental conditions.

Adaptation, Psychological↗

PubMed1985

Preoptic implants of estradiol increase wheel running but not the open field activity of female rats.

In order to localize the neural substrate for estrogen induction of increases in activity, bilateral implants of dilute estradiol (in concentrations of 1:10, 1:100, and 1:250) were made into the medial preoptic area (n = 5), the anterior hypothalamus (n = 8), the ventromedial hypothalamus (n = 6), and the posterior hypothalamus (n = 4) of ovariectomized female rats housed in running wheels. The same animals were also tested for open field activity and lordosis. The preoptic area was the most effective site tested for estrogenic stimulation of running wheel activity, with 3/5 animals responding consistently to estradiol application. 3/8 animals with cannulae in the anterior hypothalamus (AHA) responded with increases in activity measured in the running wheel on at least two out of three estradiol treatments. No animals with cannula placements posterior to the AHA exhibited consistent running wheel responses to estradiol. No estrogen-induced increase in open field activity was found, regardless of cannula location or concentration of estradiol; however, there was a tendency for the number of squares entered during the later tests to decrease in the ventromedial hypothalamic nucleus group and in the subgroup of animals not showing estrogen-sensitive wheel running in the anterior hypothalamic area group. Only the ventromedial hypothalamic estradiol treatments stimulated lordosis behavior. These results support earlier reports suggesting that the medial preoptic area (and possibly the adjacent anterior hypothalamic area) is the critical brain site for estrogenic stimulation of running wheel activity.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Animals↗

PubMed1986

Change in period of free-running rhythms determined by two different tools in blinded rats.

Drinking rhythm in 6 rats optically enucleated on the day of birth was determined every one to two weeks after weaning until the age of 28 weeks. Each rat was transferred repeatedly from a cage without a running wheel to one with a running wheel, and vice versa. During the periods when the rats were housed in the former cage, drinking rhythm delayed, while it advanced when they were housed in the latter. The rats, which had a period of free-running rhythm of motor activity longer than 24 hr when measured by an Automex device in a cage without a running wheel, showed a period shorter than 24 hr when measured by a running wheel. These results suggest that the difference in tools for determination of activity may influence the results of animal experiments for free-running rhythm, and warn investigators of risks being caused by the selection of tools.

Animals↗

PubMed1988

A microanalysis of wheel running in male and female rats.

The pattern of ad lib wheel running was studied in adult Sprague-Dawley rats. Wheel turns per 20 seconds were recorded for 5 days. Females ran more than males but both ran chiefly at night, with a peak at the beginning and a decline to low levels by daytime. Log-survivor plots showed running occurred in distinct episodes separated by long periods of nonrunning. Both the nightly decrease and the sex difference in running were due to changes in duration of episodes and the running speed. Initiation of running, as reflected in the length of nonrunning periods was similar in both sexes and remained constant over the night. Running was discussed in terms of independent initiation and termination factors and its parallels to eating patterns.

Animals↗

PubMed1990

Intensity and precision of circadian wheel running in three outbred rat strains.

The laboratory rat is widely used in many areas of neurobiologic and behavioral research. However, studies of circadian activity rhythms have usually employed other rodent species whose activity patterns are more amenable to measurement in the circadian paradigm. Nevertheless, the rat may be the optimal choice in certain investigations of circadian function because of the wealth of data on the neuroanatomy and neuropharmacology of this species. This study was undertaken to determine whether choice of rat strain could affect the quality of measured circadian activity data. Intensity of wheel running (wheel revolutions per day), precision of onset, and longevity of consistently interpretable running records were assessed in three common outbred rat stains, Long-Evans, Wistar, and Sprague-Dawley. Long-Evans rats showed greater intensity of wheel running while entrained and at four and eight weeks of free running in constant darkness. There was no difference in precision of running onset among the three strains. Thus, use of the Long-Evans strain, with its greater intensity of wheel running and similar precision of activity onset, may confer advantages in studies involving measurement of circadian activity rhythms in the rat.

Animals↗