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Results for “Injections, Subcutaneous”

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At least 793 records · Page 44Linked to original sources

PubMed2007

Long-term effects of subcutaneously injected 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin on the liver of rhesus monkeys.

2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) accumulates and remains stable in the fatty tissues and liver of rodents for a long time. Considering the pronounced difference between species, long-term, low dose hepatic effects of TCDD were investigated after subcutaneous administration of TCDD into rhesus monkeys during pregnancy. Macroscopic and histopathological examination of the liver carried out 4 y after TCDD administration demonstrated intrahepatic focal fatty changes, infarction, hemorrhage, microthrombi-formation, sinusoidal ectasia, small hepatocyte hyperplasia, and increased number of alpha-smooth muscle actin (alpha-SMA)-positive cells. An electron microscopic study disclosed sinusoidal endothelial cell degeneration and injury in the liver of TCDD-treated monkeys. Western blot analysis showed downregulation of aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) protein expression and decreased level of vascular endothelial (VE) cadherin but increased expression levels of CYP1A1 and transforming growth factor beta (TGF-beta) protein in the liver tissues. These changes observed in TCDD-exposed monkeys indicated sinusoidal endothelial cell injury and impairment in intrasinusoidal microcirculation. Infarction, focal fatty change, and microthrombi-formation are considered to be closely associated with intrahepatic circulatory impairment. Increased number of alpha-SMA-positive cells and decreased level of VE cadherin expression in the liver tissues might also be associated with sinusoidal endothelial cell injury. In addition, downregulation of AhR expression and increased CYP1A1 protein levels in the liver were consistent with persistent effects of TCDD. Although it has been reported that TCDD induced endothelial cell injury, this is the first report to describe vascular disorders and protein expression in the liver after injection with TCDD in a primate model.

Animals↗

PubMed2004

[Subcutaneous injection of insecticide for attempted suicide: a report of two cases].

We present two patients (30-year-old female, and 20-year-old male) who attempted suicide by injecting commercially available insecticides into the forearm. No systemic signs of intoxication were observed during the acute and subacute periods. Since both patients had severe swelling, pain, and tension in the affected limb, suggesting acute atraumatic compartment syndrome, immediate fasciotomy and surgical debridement were performed. At surgery, extensive subcutaneous necrosis was observed. During long-term follow-ups, no motor and sensory deficits or contractures were seen.

Adult↗

PubMed1962

Yellow fever vaccination in Malaya by subcutaneous injection and multiple puncture. Neutralizing antibody responses in persons with and without pre-existing antibody to related viruses.

Because of the risk of introduction of yellow fever to South-East Asia, comparative studies were made of yellow fever vaccination in Malayans who had a high prevalence of antibody to related viruses and in volunteers without related antibody. The proportions of positive neutralizing antibody responses to subcutaneous vaccination with 17D vaccine were not significantly different between volunteers with and without heterologous antibody but the degree of antibody response was greater in those without. The ID(50) of 17D in both groups was about 5 mouse intracerebral LD(50). Multiple puncture vaccination with 17D gave a much lower response rate than subcutaneous vaccination in volunteers with heterologous antibody. In both groups subcutaneous doses of about 50 mouse intracerebral LD(50) gave larger antibody responses than higher doses. The neutralizing indices and analysis of results were calculated by a method based on the survival time of the mice. This method, which has advantages over that of Reed & Muench, is fully described in an annex to this paper.

Animals↗

PubMed2004

A comparison of the bioequivalence of two formulations of epoetin alfa after subcutaneous injection.

BACKGROUND: The previous formulation of epoetin alfa in Japan was a citrate-buffered protein solution containing gelatin hydrolysate as the protein protective agent. To eliminate pain at injection sites, and the risks of anaphylactic shock and unknown infections by gelatin we have developed a new formulation of phosphate-buffered epoetin alfa, which does not contain gelatin hydrolysate. AIM: To compare the bioequivalence of two formulations of epoetin alfa administered by the subcutaneous route. METHODS: Four separate studies were performed to assess the bioequivalence of two epoetin alfa formulations using different strength and doses, i.e. 750 IU per 0.5 ml x 0.5 ml (= 750 IU per subject), 750 IU per 0.5 ml x 4 ml (= 6000 IU per subject), 6000 IU per 0.5 ml x 0.5 ml (= 6000 IU per subject) and 24,000 IU per 0.5 ml x 0.125 ml (= 6000 IU per subject). Each study was a single-centre, open-label, randomized, two-treatment, two-period, crossover study for which healthy volunteers were enrolled. Bioequivalence was assessed using the confidence interval (CI) of the ratios for the log-transformed, baseline-corrected Cmax and AUC(0,t). Baseline-corrected AUC(0,t) was calculated using the following equation: AUC(0,t) = AUC(0,t), uncorrected -- predose level x observation period. RESULTS: The ratios (gelatin-free/gelatin-containing) for the log-transformed Cmax and AUC(0,t) after 6000 IU per subject injection of three different concentrations of epoetin alfa were well within the usual range for bioequivalence (90% CI 0.8, 1.25). The 90% CI of the ratio for Cmax after 750 IU per subject injection was 0.906, 1.24, which was within the bioequivalence range. However, the ratio for AUC(0,t) was not determined in this lowest dose because of negative AUC(0,t) values obtained in 12/60 cases. The overall safety data were consistent with those expected for a healthy study population, and did not present any concerns suggestive of adverse effects due to either formulation. CONCLUSIONS: The point estimates and 90% CIs of the ratios of Cmax and AUC(0,t) for the gelatin-free/gelatin-containing formulations indicated that the two formulations are bioequivalent.

Adult↗

PubMed1996

[A case study of metastatic renal cell carcinoma in lungs showing complete response to continuous subcutaneous injection of interferon alpha and gamma].

Previously, we reported a case of complete response (CR) of metastatic renal cell carcinoma with inhalant interferon-gamma. This inhalant therapy was considered effective against metastatic lung hilar tumors. On the other hand, metastatic tumors of the peripheral lung field tumor did not respond to the inhalation therapy. We report, a case of metastatic renal cell carcinoma in peripheral lungs showing complete response to continuous subcutaneous administration of interferon alpha and gamma. A 53-year-old woman was admitted to our hospital because of a large palpable mass in the left upper quadrant in March, 1994. Computerized tomographic (CT) scan disclosed a huge renal tumor. To reduce the tumor size, transarterial embolization, and subcutaneous administration of interferon-gamma were performed. In April 1994, the tumor was completely excised. In the post-operative course, multiple metastases were recognized in the lower peripheral lung field, subcutaneous administration of IFN-gamma and inhalation of IFN-gamma were begun, but the tumor size increased in October 1994. She underwent continuous subcutaneous administration of IFN-alpha and gamma. Three months later, the lung tumor disappeared. She has remained tumor-free as of October 1995. We concluded that this therapy may be effective against metastatic renal cell carcinoma in the lungs.

Antineoplastic Combined Chemotherapy Protocols↗

PubMed2004

A subcutaneously injected UV-inactivated SARS coronavirus vaccine elicits systemic humoral immunity in mice.

The recent emergence of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) was caused by a novel coronavirus, SARS-CoV. It spread rapidly to many countries and developing a SARS vaccine is now urgently required. In order to study the immunogenicity of UV-inactivated purified SARS-CoV virion as a vaccine candidate, we subcutaneously immunized mice with UV-inactivated SARS-CoV with or without an adjuvant. We chose aluminum hydroxide gel (alum) as an adjuvant, because of its long safety history for human use. We observed that the UV-inactivated SARS-CoV virion elicited a high level of humoral immunity, resulting in the generation of long-term antibody secreting and memory B cells. With the addition of alum to the vaccine formula, serum IgG production was augmented and reached a level similar to that found in hyper-immunized mice, though it was still insufficient to elicit serum IgA antibodies. Notably, the SARS-CoV virion itself was able to induce long-term antibody production even without an adjuvant. Anti-SARS-CoV antibodies elicited in mice recognized both the spike and nucleocapsid proteins of the virus and were able to neutralize the virus. Furthermore, the UV-inactivated virion induced regional lymph node T-cell proliferation and significant levels of cytokine production (IL-2, IL-4, IL-5, IFN-gamma and TNF-alpha) upon restimulation with inactivated SARS-CoV virion in vitro. Thus, a whole killed virion could serve as a candidate antigen for a SARS vaccine to elicit both humoral and cellular immunity.

Adjuvants, Immunologic↗

PubMed1992

The pharmacokinetics of two different concentrations of short-acting insulin, intermediate-acting insulin, and an insulin mixture following subcutaneous injection.

To compare the pharmacokinetics of two different concentrations, containing either 40 or 100 IU/ml of short-acting human insulin (Velasulin HM), intermediate-acting human insulin (Insulatard HM), or an insulin mixture (25% short-acting insulin, 75% intermediate-acting insulin; Mixtard HM), three randomized, single-blind, crossover trials were performed using the euglycemic clamp technique. Eighteen healthy volunteers received insulin of either formulation subcutaneously in each of the studies (15 IU Velasulin, 20 IU Insulatard, or Mixtard). The blood glucose levels were maintained constant by glucose infusions. In the trial using Velasulin, the two different insulin concentrations were equivalent regarding the total absorption [area under the curve (AUC) of serum insulin: 126 +/- 28 and 123 +/- 35 mU/l x 12 h for U40 and U100 (mean +/- SD)], but not in regard to the rate of absorption (t max 1.3 +/- 0.4 and 2.4 +/- 1.0 h for U40 and U100). In the case of Insulatard, total absorption was not equivalent (AUC 153 +/- 35 and 128 +/- 37 ml/l x 24 h for U40 and U100), but the rate of absorption was equivalent (t max 4.8 +/- 2.9 and 5.3 +/- 4.6 h). In the Mixtard series, total absorption was equivalent (AUC 142 +/- 32 and 128 +/- 22 mU/l x 24 h), but the rate of absorption was not (t max 2.2 +/- 0.9 and 3.2 +/- 4.2 h for U40 and U100). The glucose requirement was not equivalent in each of the three series.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Adult↗

PubMed2003

Side-to-side symmetry of radioprotein transfer from tissue space to systemic vasculature following subcutaneous injection in normal subjects and patients with breast cancer.

Quantitative lymphoscintigraphy can be used for investigation of unilateral lymphatic disease of the limbs, such as breast cancer-related lymphoedema (BCRL). Previous studies have compared lymphatic function in the affected limb with that in the unaffected contralateral limb. This study aims to confirm that the assumption of pre-morbid symmetry, never previously demonstrated, is valid. A dual-isotope technique, with bilateral subcutaneous hand injection of polyclonal human immunoglobulin G (HIgG) labelled with either technetium-99m or indium-111, was performed on a total of 37 subjects. The use of two different labels, one for each limb, enabled comparison not only of the rate of clearance from the injection depot, but also of the rate of appearance in venous blood. Results demonstrate clear symmetry between the two arms with respect to both depot clearance and blood appearance rates, as well as the coupling between these two variables. In unilateral lymphatic disease, results of quantitative lymphoscintigraphy should be expressed in relation to the normal arm rather than to an independent control population.

Arm↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Immunological effects of a single evening subcutaneous injection of low-dose interleukin-2 in association with the pineal hormone melatonin in advanced cancer patients.

Recent experiments have shown that a great variety of neurohormones can interact with IL-2 in the modulation of host antitumor immune response. On the basis of these data, a study was started to evaluate the effect of the pineal hormone melatonin (MLT) on IL-2-induced immune changes in cancer. The study included 30 advanced cancer patients. They were randomized to be treated with IL-2 at a dose of 3 million IU subcutaneously twice/daily (8.00 a.m. and 8.00 p.m.) for 6 days/week for 4 weeks, with IL-2 once/daily in the evening, with IL-2 once/daily plus MLT at 10 or at 50 mg/day. MLT was given orally at 8.00 p.m. Both IL-2 given twice daily and IL-2 given once daily and IL-2 given once daily in association with MTL induced a significant increase in mean number of lymphocytes, T lymphocytes, NK cells, CD25-positive cells and eosinophils, whereas the single administration of IL-2 alone was unable to determine a significant rise in the mean number of immune cells. Soluble IL-2 receptor and neopterin increase was significantly higher during IL-2 given twice/daily than during IL-2 plus MLT, while no difference was seen in TNF rise. This study would suggest that a single daily injection of low-dose IL-2 is able to efficiently activate the lymphocyte proliferation in cancer patients when it is given in association with the pineal hormone MLT.

Adult↗

PubMed2004

Calcinosis of the cutis and subcutis: an unusual nonimmunologic adverse reaction to subcutaneous injections of low-molecular-weight calcium-containing heparins.

BACKGROUND: Local side effects at the injection sites of low-molecular-weight heparins are rare and can be of immunologic or nonimmunologic origin. Calcinosis cutis is a rare disorder and occurs in various circumstances. In patients with chronic renal failure the risk of pathologic calcifications is raised due to elevated calcium-phosphorus products. OBJECTIVE: Five patients suffering from renal failure developed remarkable cutaneous and subcutaneous nodules or plaques following subcutaneous nadroparin-calcium injections. Our aim was to evaluate the morphology and precipitation factors of these calcifications and to discuss immunological and nonimmunological differential diagnoses. METHODS: Histological examination, spectroscopic analysis, ultrasonography, allergy testing and reexposition testing including non-calcium heparins were performed. RESULTS: Histology using the van Kossa staining technique revealed calcinosis of the dermis and subcutis. Ultrasonography showed focal subcutaneous calcifications. In all patients the calcium-phosphorus products were elevated. CONCLUSION: Clinicians should be aware that patients with renal failure and elevated calcium-phosphorus products may be at risk of developing calcinosis cutis at calcium-containing heparin injection sites. As a consequence, we propose the use of non-calcium heparins in these patients.

Anticoagulants↗

PubMed1986

Improved immunoscintigraphy by subcutaneous injection of 99mTc or 111In labelled F(ab')2 fragments of an anti-melanoma monoclonal antibody.

Technetium-99m and/or 111In labelled F(ab')2 fragments of a melanoma associated MoAb 225.28S were injected i.v. in 80 patients affected by stage I to IV malignant melanoma. Seventy five percent of metastatic lesions already documented by other methods were detected by immunoscintigraphy, which was also capable of detecting a certain number of unknown metastases. However, we observed a lower percentage of positive scans in liver, lung and skin because of the poor tumour to background ratio. In some patients, subcutaneous (s.c.) injection allowed us to visualize documented metastases undetected by i.v. administration. An equal amount of non-specific F(ab')2 fragments (MoAb 4C4) injected s.c. as a negative control showed no positive scans. Clinical studies and chromatographic patterns of patient serum samples suggest that the s.c. route of administration offers, with respect to the i.v. route, the advantage of reducing vascular background and aspecific accumulation in liver, probably because of retention of possible contaminants by the lymphatic system.

Antibodies, Monoclonal↗

PubMed2004

Randomized phase II study of amifostine mucosal protection by either subcutaneous injection or rapid IV bolus for patients with inoperable stage II-IIIA/B or stage IV non-small cell lung cancer with oligometastases receiving concurrent radiochemotherapy with carboplatin and paclitaxel followed by optional consolidative chemotherapy: a follow-up study after RTOG 98-01.

While concurrent chemoradiotherapy is a standard treatment for good-performance patients with non-small cell lung cancer, acute esophagitis is a frequent toxicity. The incidence of severe acute esophagitis > or = grade 3 in patients treated with standard (once-daily) radiation therapy alone is 1.3%, increasing to 14% to 25% with the addition of concurrent chemotherapy, and 24% to 34% for the combination of hyperfractionated (twice-daily) radiation therapy plus concomitant chemotherapy. Although esophagitis is almost never a cause of mortality, it results in significant morbidity and may force treatment breaks, which are associated with inferior outcome in non-small cell lung cancer. Substantial investigative efforts to prevent or ameliorate esophagitis have been conducted. We describe herein the rationale/study design for a multi-institutional, phase II randomized study to evaluate either daily subcutaneous or intravenous bolus infusions of amifostine in patients with non-small cell lung cancer who receive standard fractionated thoracic radiation therapy concurrently with weekly paclitaxel and carboplatin chemotherapy.

Amifostine↗

PubMed1998

Enhanced protective antibody responses to PspA after intranasal or subcutaneous injections of PspA genetically fused to granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor or interleukin-2.

Antibody to pneumococcal surface protein A (PspA) has been shown to be protective for Streptococcus pneumoniae infections in mice. In an attempt to define a model for inducing protective antibody to PspA in the absence of adjuvant, we designed two genetic fusions, PspA-interleukin-2 [IL-2]) and PspA-granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF). These constructs maintained high cytokine function in vitro, as tested by their activity on IL-2 or GM-CSF-dependent cell lines. While intranasal immunization with PspA induced no detectable anti-PspA response, both PspA-IL-2 and PspA-GM-CSF stimulated high immunoglobulin G1 (IgG1) antibody responses. Interestingly, only the PspA-IL-2, not the PspA-GM-CSF, construct stimulated IgG2a antibody responses, suggesting that this construct directed the response along a TH1-dependent pathway. Comparable enhancement of the anti-PspA response with similar isotype profiles was observed after subcutaneous immunization as well. The enhancement observed with PspA-IL-2 was dependent on IL-2 activity in that it was not seen in IL-2 receptor knockout mice, while PspA in alum induced high-titer antibody in these mice. The antibody was tested for its protective activity in a mouse lethality model using S. pneumoniae WU-R2. Passive transfer of 1:90 dilutions of sera from mice immunized with PspA-IL-2 and PspA-GM-CSF elicited protection of CBA/N mice against intravenous challenge with over 170 50% lethal doses of capsular type 3 strain WU2. Only 0.17 microg or less of IgG antibody to PspA was able to provide passive protection against otherwise fatal challenge with S. pneumoniae. The data demonstrate that designing protein-cytokine fusions may be a useful approach for mucosal immunization and can induce high-titer systemic protective antibody responses.

Administration, Intranasal↗

PubMed1986

Comparison of results for phase I studies with recombinant and plasma-derived hepatitis B vaccines, and controlled study comparing intramuscular and subcutaneous injections of recombinant hepatitis B vaccine.

A comparison was made of the results obtained in separate Phase I studies conducted in Japan on a recombinant hepatitis B vaccine (HBX-R) and a plasma-derived hepatitis B vaccine (H-B-VAX). Recombinant hepatitis B vaccine was administered intramuscularly (IM) to 40 subjects in a dose of 10 micrograms, while H-B-VAX was administered IM to 35 subjects in a dose of 20 micrograms. Each subject received three doses of the vaccine at times zero, 1 month and 6 months. In both trials, at the end of 7 months from the first vaccination all vaccinees had become seropositive for anti-HBs antibody. During the 1-6 month period after the first dose, the seroconversion rate was always higher in the H-B-VAX subjects than in the HBX-R subjects. The anti-HBs antibody titre was also always higher in the H-B-VAX group during that same 6-month period, but there was no longer any difference at the 7th month (H-B-VAX: HBX-R = 1064: 1164 IU/L). In an additional study on the effect of the administration route on the efficacy of HBX-R, 124 subjects were randomly allotted to an IM group and a subcutaneous (sc) group. In each group, HBX-R was administered in 3 doses of 10 micrograms, again at time zero, 1 month and 6 months. At the end of the 7th month, the anti-HBs seroconversion rates were 98% (55/56) in the IM group and 97% (57/59) in the sc group.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Adult↗

PubMed1993

Peripheral T-cell tolerance induced in naive and primed mice by subcutaneous injection of peptides from the major cat allergen Fel d I.

T cells control the majority of antigen-specific immune responses. Therefore, influencing the activation of the T-cell response in order to modify immune responsiveness is an obvious therapeutic goal. We have used a mouse model of response to Fel d I, the major cat protein allergen in humans, to explore the ability of peptides derived from Fel d I to inhibit T-cell-dependent immune responses to the peptides themselves and to larger polypeptides. T cells from B6CBAF1 mice respond to the Fel d I peptide IPC-2 after challenge with IPC-2. However, subcutaneous tolerization with IPC-2 prevents this response as measured by production of interleukins 2 and 4 and interferon gamma. Fel d I immunization of B6D2F1 mice results in T-cell responses primarily to one peptide derived from Fel d I. Injecting this peptide in soluble form inhibits T-cell activation (as measured by interleukin 2 production) and antibody production in Fel d I-primed animals when they are subsequently challenged with peptide in adjuvant. Most of the cat-allergic human T-cell response to Fel d I is specific for two peptides on one of its two chains. Immunization of B6CBAF1 mice with recombinant Fel d I chain 1 results in T-cell responses to the same peptides. Subcutaneous administration of these two peptides, which contain some, but not all, of the T-cell epitopes from Fel d I chain I, decreases the T-cell response to the entire recombinant Fel d I chain 1. The ability to tolerize T-cell responses with subcutaneous injections suggests a practical approach to treating human diseases with peptides containing T-cell epitopes.

Allergens↗

PubMed2004

Verotoxins in commensal Escherichia coli in cattle: the effect of injectable subcutaneous oxytetracycline in addition to in-feed chlortetracycline on prevalence.

Using a self-paired observational study, the association between therapeutic oxytetracycline use and the prevalence of virulence genes in commensal Escherichia coli (E. coli) from cattle was examined. Faeces were collected from 39 yearling bulls prior to and after treatment with oxytetracycline and from 44 untreated animals. Between samplings all animals received in-feed chlortetracycline for 16 days. Five E. coli were isolated from each sample and tested by a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) capable of detecting all verotoxin (vt) genes. Positive isolates were further tested with a multiplex PCR to detect vt1, vt2, eaeA and hlyA. For vt, 23 animals were positive at both samplings, 26 negative at both samplings, 22 negative animals became positive and 12 positive animals became negative. Sixty-eight per cent of the discordant pairs changed from vt-negative to vt-positive (95% CI 48-80) suggesting pressure toward becoming vt-positive perhaps due to the transfer of genes due to mixing of cattle in the months between samplings or an effect of chlortetracycline.

Administration, Oral↗

PubMed1994

A cost-benefit comparison of intensive diabetes management with implantable pumps versus multiple subcutaneous injections in patients with type I diabetes.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate if intraperitoneal (IP) insulin infusion via programmable implantable pumps is a potential alternative to subcutaneous (SC) insulin via multiple injections. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: We compared the cost-benefits of the two methods using a randomized, prospective, 6-month, crossover design in 10 adult type I diabetic patients. RESULTS: When judged on the last month of IP versus SC periods in the nine patients who completed the study, metabolic data showed better glycemic control (HbA1c: 7.2 +/- 0.2 IP vs. 8.5 +/- 0.7% SC, mean +/- SE, P = 0.02), reduced glycemic fluctuations (SD of capillary glucose values: 3.4 +/- 0.2 IP vs. 4.6 +/- 0.2 mM SC, P < 0.01), and fewer mild hypoglycemic events (5.7 +/- 2.0 IP vs. 10.0 +/- 3.1 events/month SC, P = 0.02). Quality of life, judged by Diabetes Control and Complications Trial questionnaires, was unaffected by pump therapy. Direct costs, including pump acquisition, implantation, and follow-up, were 2.6-fold higher with IP than with SC delivery. CONCLUSIONS: The implantable pump is more effective in the short term, equally accepted, but more costly than multiple injections and should be limited to patients with unsatisfactory glycemic control despite intensive diabetes management with SC insulin. In addition, longer-term, larger-scale, and comparative evaluation is required.

Adult↗

PubMed2003

Modulation of lymphatic distribution of subcutaneously injected poloxamer 407-coated nanospheres: the effect of the ethylene oxide chain configuration.

Lymphatic distribution of interstitially injected poloxamer 407-coated nanospheres (45 nm in diameter) is controlled by surface configuration of the ethylene oxide (EO) segments of the adsorbed copolymer. At low poloxamer surface coverage, EO tails spread laterally on a nanosphere surface and assume a 'flat or mushroom-like' configuration. Such entities drain rapidly from the subcutaneous site of injection into the initial lymphatic, when compared to uncoated nanospheres, and subsequently are captured by scavengers of the regional lymph nodes. In vitro experiments have also confirmed that such entities are prone to phagocytosis. When the equilibrium poloxamer concentration is at 75 microg/ml or greater the EO chains become more closely packed and project outward from the nanosphere surface. These surface-engineered nanospheres drain faster than those with EO chains in mushroom configurations into the initial lymphatic, escape clearance by lymph node macrophages, reach the systemic circulation, and remain in the blood for prolonged periods. These experiments provide a rational approach for the design and engineering of nano-vehicles for optimal lymphatic targeting and are discussed.

Animals↗