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PubMed2004

Evaluation of the effect of a consumer-driven health plan on medical care expenditures and utilization.

OBJECTIVE: To compare medical care costs and utilization in a consumer-driven health plan (CDHP) to other health insurance plans. STUDY DESIGN: We examine claims and employee demographic data from one large employer that adopted a CDHP in 2001. A quasi-experimental pre-post design is used to assign employees to three cohorts: (1) enrolled in a health maintenance organization (HMO) from 2000 to 2002, (2) enrolled in a preferred provider organization (PPO) from 2000 to 2002, or (3) enrolled in a CDHP in 2001 and 2002, after previously enrolling in either an HMO or PPO in 2000. Using this approach we estimate a difference-in-difference regression model for expenditure and utilization measures to identify the impact of CDHP. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: By 2002, the CDHP cohort experienced lower total expenditures than the PPO cohort but higher expenditures than the HMO cohort. Physician visits and pharmaceutical use and costs were lower in the CDHP cohort compared to the other groups. Hospital costs and admission rates for CDHP enrollees, as well as total physician expenditures, were significantly higher than for enrollees in the HMO and PPO plans. CONCLUSIONS: An early evaluation of CDHP expenditures and utilization reveals that the new health plan is a viable alternative to existing health plan designs. Enrollees in the CDHP have lower total expenditures than PPO enrollees, but higher utilization of resource-intensive hospital admissions after an initially favorable selection.

Choice Behavior↗
PubMed1988

New program broadens financing alternatives for frail elderly housing.

HUD's recent initiative in offering the financing vehicle to induce affordable housing and supportive services for the frail elderly population represents a creative solution to providing noninstitutional environments for many of our nation's seniors. For "ready to go" projects, the red tape nightmares of the past in dealing directly with HUD are dramatically eliminated through the various co-insurance programs. It is anticipated that a significant volume of board and care ventures will be processed by the authorized co-insurers in the next several years, as HUD hopefully will expand its involvement in providing shelter for our aging population.

Aged↗
PubMed1985

Factors that affect the HMO enrollment decision: a tale of two cities.

Although there is agreement that utilization patterns in HMOs differ from those in non-HMO systems, there is less agreement on how and why these differences are achieved. Selection bias is one frequently offered explanation. In an attempt to identify those individual and site-specific factors that help determine employees' choice of coverage, we developed and tested a logistic model of the enrollment decision. We used both survey data and claims data to study the decision to enroll in either an HMO or a traditional indemnity plan among state employees in Tallahassee, Florida, and Salt Lake City, Utah. We found that many factors affected the decision--factors that could be altered by an HMO or insurance company to correct selection bias if and when it is encountered.

Adult↗
PubMed1998

Mental health and substance abuse benefits in carve-out plans and the Mental Health Parity Act of 1996.

Legislation passed in the fall of 1996 required employers and insurers offering mental health benefits to raise dollar coverage limits on mental health services to the level of medical services. We analyze the benefit designs of 4,000 current behavioral health carve-out plans and contrast them to medical benefits. We find that almost 90 percent of all plans are inconsistent with the current legislation and need to be rewritten in the coming year. The restructuring of designs required by the Parity Act provides a unique opportunity because plans often are inconsistent and unnecessarily complex, a legacy of past attempts by employers to contain costs and control adverse selection and moral hazard in an unmanaged fee-for-service environment. Under managed care, the need for deductibles, limits, or other demand-side cost-sharing mechanisms may have diminished and restructuring outdated designs could benefit both enrollees and employers.

Health Benefit Plans, Employee↗
PubMed2004

Government and private insurance medical programs as well as MDVIP, an update.

On November 19,1945, President Truman outlined a Prepaid Medical Insurance Plan for all people through the Social Security System. Because of its comprehensive nature, it was coined "National Health Insurance." On July 30,1965, President Johnson signed the Medicare and Medicaid bill (Title XVII and Title XIX of the Social Security Act). Today, many groups of people are covered by Medicaid. However, there are strict requirements that may vary from state to state. Medicare offers the following types of medical heath care plans to include the original Medicare plan that is a "fee for service" plan. The individual may stay in the original plan unless he/she chooses to join a Medicare+ Choice Plan or a Medigap Plan. Most individuals will receive Medicare Part A when they are 65 without paying a premium because it has been deducted annually through their tax payments before the age of 65. Medicare Part A helps pay for the following: inpatient hospital care, skilled nursing facility, hospice care, and some home health care. Medicare Part B, however, must be paid by the individual through premiums to the Federal government. Medicare Part B medical insurance pays for doctors' services, outpatient services, and some other services that Medicare Part A doesn't cover. In an effort to supplement one's health care coverage, the individual may select either a Medicare+ Choice Plan or a Medigap Policy. The Medicare+ Choice Plan has four different types: Medicare Managed Care Plans, Medicare Private Fee for Service Plan, Medicare Preferred Provider Plans, and Medicare Specialty Plans. If one selects a Medigap policy, one may choose either a Medigap SELECT Policy or the standard Medigap policy. The front of a Medigap Policy must clearly identify it as a "Medicare Supplement Insurance." One must be carefully advised of the selection of the Medigap Policy. The Medicare Part B has a wide range of preventative services, including tests for breast cancer, cervical cancer, vaginal cancer, and colorectal cancer; bone mass measurements; diabetes monitoring and diabetes self-management; flu, pneumonia, Hepatitis B shots, and prostate cancer screening tests. It is important to emphasize that Medicare and Medicare supplemental insurance policies do not pay for home health care, such as durable medical equipment. Because of the enormous complexity of the wide variety of health insurance plans and their billing strategies, many physicians are electing to charge their patients an additional fee for being part of their practice. In return for their annual fee, their patients receive immediate cell phone access to their doctor 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. In addition, they receive same-day appointments and on-time appointments. They also spend as much time with their doctors as they wish. It is not surprising that there is growing evidence that the privately insured patient with a life-threatening illness will live longer than those individuals who have the same disease but have public insurance only. Legislatures are well aware of this crisis in medical care that must be corrected immediately.

Aged↗
PubMed1989

Long-term follow-up of sickness periods in breast cancer patients primarily treated with surgery and radiotherapy or surgery only.

Morbidity as assessed by the number of sicklisted days was studied in 500 breast cancer patients. All patients were part of a randomized trial going on between 1971 and 1976 to evaluate the clinical effect of pre- and postoperative radiotherapy versus surgery only. Data on the number of sicklisted days and various forms of retirement from 1971 to 1984 was obtained by cooperation with the Swedish National Social Insurance Office. It was shown that the number of sicklisted days did not differ significantly between the study groups when the initial sickperiod--that is the time for operation, adjuvant radiotherapy and immediate recovery--was deducted from the total number of sicklisted days. The same result was also obtained when the time on disability pension was added. Our results do thus not support the hypothesis that adjuvant radiotherapy increases morbidity in breast cancer patients.

Breast Neoplasms↗
PubMed1991

Containing U.S. health care costs: what bullet to bite?

In this article, the authors provide an overview of the problem of health care cost containment. Both the growth of health care spending and its underlying causes are discussed. Further, the authors define cost containment, provide a framework for describing cost-containment strategies, and describe the major cost-containment strategies. Finally, the role of research in choosing such a strategy for the United States is examined.

Cost Control↗
PubMed2004

Inconceivable? Deducting the costs of fertility treatment.

This Article considers whether infertile taxpayers can deduct their fertility treatment costs as medical expenses under Internal Revenue Code section 213 and whether they should be able to deduct them. Internal Revenue Code section 213 defines medical expenses as "amounts paid-for the diagnosis, cure, mitigation, treatment, or prevention of disease, or for the purpose of affecting any structure or function of the body." This definition is interpreted by reference to a baseline of normal biological functioning, which includes reproductive functioning. Most people conceive and bear children without having to incur expenses for fertility treatment. Expenses incurred to approximate the baseline of normal reproductive health are deductible, even if the taxpayer winds up better off, with a child, after the fertility treatment. The medical profession recognizes that infertility is a disease or condition. Infertility is a loss, just as a broken leg is a loss. Fertility treatment costs are thus medical expenses under section 213. In addition, given the existence of the medical expense deduction, taxpayers should be able to deduct the cost of fertility treatments, including IVF, egg donor, and surrogate procedures, under either an "ability-to-pay" or consequentialist normative approach. Reproduction is extremely important to most people. In addition, allowing taxpayers to deduct the costs of fertility treatment will encourage infertile taxpayers to elect the most effective treatment option and reduce the rate of risky multifetal pregnancies. This Article concludes that fertility treatment costs are deductible as medical expenses under current law and should be deductible as medical expenses.

Deductibles and Coinsurance↗
PubMed1998

Features of employment-based health plans.

This Issue Brief focuses on changes to the health care financing and delivery system as implemented by employers. It discusses health plan costs, cost sharing, plan funding, health care delivery systems, services covered under various health plan types, coverage limitations, and retiree health coverage. National health expenditures are estimated at $1.035 trillion, representing 13.6 percent of Gross Domestic Product in 1996, up from $699.5 billion and 12.2 percent in 1990. Rising health care spending is also evident at the employer level: In 1996, employer spending on private health insurance totaled $262.7 billion, up from $61.0 billion in 1980. Business health spending as a percentage of total compensation increased from 3.7 percent in 1980 to a high of 6.6 percent in 1993, and declined to 5.9 percent in 1996. Employment-based health plans are the most common source of health insurance coverage among the nonelderly population in the United States, providing coverage to nearly two-thirds of those under age 65. Despite the growth of many cost-sharing provisions, individuals are paying a smaller percentage of total health care costs. In 1960, 69 percent of private health care expenditures were paid out of pocket. Between 1993 and 1996, only 37 percent of private health expenditures were paid out of pocket. One of the most significant developments of the 1980s, which has continued throughout the 1990s, is the growth of managed care plans. As recently as 1994, traditional indemnity plans were the most commonly offered type of employment-based health plan. As fewer employers offered traditional indemnity plans, participation in these plans declined and participation in managed care plans increased. In 1997, 15 percent of employees participating in a health plan were enrolled in an indemnity plan, compared with 52 percent in 1992. Since 1993, employment-based health benefit cost inflation has been virtually nonexistent. Employers have kept cost increases low by using managed care and making other changes. Workers have been shifted to, have been induced to choose, or have voluntarily selected managed care health plans. Preferred provider organization (PPO) and point-of-service (POS) plans have experienced relatively strong gains in enrollment. Employers have also increased the use of utilization review for active workers, and cut back on health benefits for retirees. These changes are in stark contrast to the pre-1993 period, which saw even faster change, with rising health care costs and increasing deductibles and coinsurance for workers in non-HMOs.

Cost Sharing↗
PubMed2000

The impact of medicare funding on the use of mammography among older women: implications for improving access to screening.

BACKGROUND: In 1991, a policy change extended finan cial coverage for biennial mammography to holders of Medicare part B. The impact of this decision on mammography use was examined by comparing mammography use among Medicare-eligible and ineligible women in the years before (1990) and after (1993) the policy change, using National Health Interview Survey (NHIS) data, controlling for socioeconomic indicators and for having a usual source of medical care. METHODS: The Medicare-eligible group consists of 2,419 women ages 65-69 years and women ages 60-64 years who are Medicare-eligible. The Medicare-ineligible group consists of 1,872 women ages 60-64 years. The analysis used logistic regressions and compared women who had undergone mammography in the prior 2 years and controlled for race, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, insurance status, and usual source of care. RESULTS: Medicare reimbursement of mammography appears to have increased the number of Medicare-eligible women who had had a mammogram in the 2 years prior to the survey. However, the analyses suggested that disparities in mammography use due to access to primary care and socioeconomic status persisted after the change in Medicare coverage. Analyses indicated that having additional insurance was the only significant predictor of having a usual source of care among the Medicare population. CONCLUSIONS: This analysis suggests that simply removing financial barriers to mammography for older women (such as the 1998 elimination of a deductible payment for mammograms provided under Medicare) may have limited effectiveness. The strong relationship between having a usual source of care and mammography suggests that disparities in mammography use may reflect inequalities in access to health care in general.

Aged↗
PubMed2006

Who will be denied Medicare prescription drug subsidies because of the asset test?

OBJECTIVE: To determine the number and characteristics of Medicare beneficiaries who will be excluded from low-income prescription drug subsidies because they do not qualify under an asset test. STUDY DESIGN: Cross-sectional, using the US Census Bureau's Survey of Income and Program Participation (SIPP); results were based on interviews occurring between October 2002 and January 2003. The sample included 9278 Medicare beneficiaries, 2929 with incomes below 150% of the federal poverty level (FPL). METHODS: Using SIPP, each sample member's income was compared to the FPL. Income was adjusted to include only liquid assets and primary residences. The number of individuals excluded by the asset test and their characteristics and types of assets responsible were calculated. RESULTS: Of 13.97 million noninstitutionalized Medicare beneficiaries, 2.37 million (17%) with low incomes would be excluded from subsidized drug coverage due to the asset test. Compared to higher-income beneficiaries, the excluded individuals tended to be older, female, widowed, and living alone. Almost half of their assets were checking and savings accounts. Half of the individuals failing the test had assets less than 35,000 dollars above the allowing thresholds. CONCLUSIONS: Widows are disproportionately affected by the asset test. When a husband dies, income plummets but accumulated assets often exceed those allowed under Medicare legislation. During their working years Americans are encouraged to save for retirement, but by accumulating modest amounts of assets, these same people often will then not qualify for low-income drug subsidies. Modifying or eliminating the asset test would help protect individuals disadvantaged by low incomes who have modest amounts of asset holdings.

Aged↗
PubMed1989

Medicare program; SNF coinsurance amount for 1990--HCFA. Notice.

This notice announces that the skilled nursing facility (SNF) coinsurance amount for calendar year 1990 for the 1st through 8th days of extended care services in a SNF under Medicare's hospital insurance program (Part A) is $26.50. The Medicare statute specifies the method to be used to determine this amount.

Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services, U.S.↗
PubMed2002

Employer-sponsored insurance: how much financial protection does it provide?

The authors examine the generosity of private employer health insurance coverage using data from two large national surveys of employers. Generosity is measured as the expected out-of-pocket share of medical expenditures for a standard population, given the provisions of the coverage. On average, those covered by employer-sponsored insurance can expect to pay 25 percent of expenditures out of pocket. There is little variability across plans in this share, though plans offered by smaller employers are somewhat less generous than those offered by larger employers. Individuals who incur high costs pay a smaller share of the bill than do those with lower levels of spending. The generosity of employer-sponsored plans increased slightly in the 1990s.

Adult↗