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PubMed2006

Gene expression profile of empirically delineated classes of unexplained chronic fatigue.

OBJECTIVES: To identify the underlying gene expression profiles of unexplained chronic fatigue subjects classified into five or six class solutions by principal component (PCA) and latent class analyses (LCA). METHODS: Microarray expression data were available for 15,315 genes and 111 female subjects enrolled from a population-based study on chronic fatigue syndrome. Algorithms were developed to assign gene scores and threshold values that signified the contribution of each gene to discriminate the multiclasses in each LCA solution. Unsupervised dimensionality reduction was first used to remove noise or otherwise uninformative gene combinations, followed by supervised dimensionality reduction to isolate gene combinations that best separate the classes. RESULTS: The authors' gene score and threshold algorithms identified 32 and 26 genes capable of discriminating the five and six multiclass solutions, respectively. Pair-wise comparisons suggested that some genes (zinc finger protein 350 [ZNF350], solute carrier family 1, member 6 [SLC1A6], F-box protein 7 [FBX07] and vacuole 14 protein homolog [VAC14]) distinguished most classes of fatigued subjects from healthy subjects, whereas others (patched homolog 2 [PTCH2] and T-cell leukemia/lymphoma [TCL1A]) differentiated specific fatigue classes. CONCLUSION: A computational approach was developed for general use to identify discriminatory genes in any multiclass problem. Using this approach, differences in gene expression were found to discriminate some classes of unexplained chronic fatigue, particularly one termed interoception.

Algorithms↗

PubMed1978

Relationship between cardiorespiratory fitness and physiological responses to films.

Subject's physiological responses and rated reactions to a medical film and an erotic film were assessed. Later cardiovascular fitness levels were determined by subject's physiological responses to an exercise task. The greater the increase in the subject's systolic blood pressure after exercise and the slower the recovery, the lower the fitness level. A median split on the fitness scores of males and females separately was used to determine levels of relatively low and high fitness. Subjects in low fitness had significantly greater sympathetic-arousal responses to the two films as measured in systolic blood-pressure increases and skin-temperature decreases. Subjects in the two fitness levels did not differ in ratings of their own physiological or emotional responses to the films. Reported interoception of the magnitude of physiological responses was inaccurate, especially for subjects in low fitness.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1979

Nystagmus duration changes of learning disabled children during sensory integrative therapy.

Sensory integrative therapy was administered to 43 learning disabled children categorized according to their pretherapeutic duration of postrotary nystagmus. The duration then was recorded after relatively short or long treatments. Children displaying initial subnormal nystagmic functioning responded to therapy with increases in duration while others displayed decreases, and these effects were more apparent after long therapy. These data support the claims that learning disabled children can be meaningfully categorized according to their nystagmic responses and that attention to their interoceptive sensory functioning may be of clinical significance.

Child↗

PubMed1997

Emergent properties following brain injury: the claustrum as a major component of a pathway that influences nociceptive thresholds to foot shock in rats.

Flinch (pain) thresholds for electric current delivered to the feet were correlated with the amount of necrosis within the diencephalon and telencephalon for rats in which seizures had been induced by lithium and pilocarpine about two months before the testing. The shared variance of the quantitative damage within the claustrum, the anterior part of the paraventricular nucleus of thalamus, (central) mediodorsal thalamus, and lateral amygdala (ventromedial part) explained 81% of the variance in the nociceptive (flinch) thresholds. A primary role of the claustrum within the neuropathways that mediate the response to the interoceptive and "painful" characteristics of stimuli is indicated. The concept of primary pathways versus "emergent" pathways subsequent to excitotoxic damage within the neuromatrix is discussed.

Animals↗

PubMed1994

Bulimia: an empirical analysis of psychodynamic theory.

This study examined two aspects of psychodynamic theory concerning bulimia nervosa, that bulimic patients ascribe to a traditionally feminine sex-role and that bulimic women have difficulty differentiating emotional from visceral sensations. 18 bulimic and 18 control women were administered the Bem Sex-role Inventory and the Eating Disorder Inventory. Contrary to dynamic theory, bulimic women were not more likely classified as traditionally feminine than control subjects; however, significantly more controls than bulimic women were classified as androgynous. Analysis of scores on the Eating Disorder Inventory's Interoceptive Awareness scale indicated a significant difference between bulimic persons and controls, providing strong support for the hypothesis that bulimic women have a difficult time differentiating emotional from visceral sensations.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2001

Cognitive processes in panic disorder: an extension of current models.

Beck and Clark's 1997 information processing model of panic was presented and evaluated. In general, studies using the Stroop task have shown panic patients have a cognitive bias toward negative and personally relevant information. Several studies have also shown that panic patients tend to have more catastrophic thoughts and are more likely to misinterpret bodily sensations. Further, cognitive-behavioral therapy is more effective than drug therapies. The limitations of the cognitive model and cognitive-behavioral therapy were discussed, and an extension of current models was proposed. The extension of current models combines cognitive-behavioral and psychodynamic concepts and techniques and suggests that exposure in vivo used for agoraphobic situations and interoceptive exposure used for panic should also be applied to the underlying themes of panic disorder.

Cognition Disorders↗

PubMed1990

The effect of benzodiazepines administration on auricular symptomatological evidence.

The aim of this study is to verify the response of auricular skin to interoceptive stimuli in two groups of patients suffering from a gastroenteral pathology. Patients were submitted to a complete examination of auricle, in order to detect morphological alterations and painful points, and to a diagnostic digestive endoscopy. A group of patients took benzodiazepines at the moment of auricular examination; the second group did not take any drug. Results show that there is a significantly lower number of auricular painful points in the patients taking benzodiazepines in comparison with the patients who did not take such drug. In the patients treated with benzodiazepines the auricular diagnosis of painful points does not seem to be reliable.

Acupuncture Points↗

PubMed2006

Posing for success: clenching a fist facilitates approach.

A clenched fist is a gesture often seen both within and outside sports that seems to communicate success or to function in self-encouragement or the encouragement of others. This "encouragement gesture" involves the contraction of forearm flexors, similar to the grasping action that is part of acquisitive approach actions. This gesture may be part of a physiological feedback mechanism that functions to increase or sustain levels of approach in challenging situations by signaling the sufficiency of resources (muscle strength). Here we show that for pleasant but not unpleasant words, subjects were faster in categorizing words while contracting their forearm flexors rather than their forearm tensors. This effect dissipated during the first minute of performance, which may reflect habituation of interoceptive feedback. The data further suggest that the effect is larger when experimenter and subject are of opposite sexes. The facilitated responding to pleasant stimuli suggests that contraction of the forearm flexors promotes approach.

Achievement↗

PubMed2005

Personality from a controlled processing perspective: an fMRI study of neuroticism, extraversion, and self-consciousness.

Although neuroticism has been central to most theories of personality, self-reported neuroticism has had limited success in predicting expected behavioral outcomes. The reason for this may be due, in part, to the imprecision of self-reports. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between neural correlates of control systems and neuroticism, extraversion, and self-consciousness. In response to an oddball task, neuroticism was associated with increased dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC) reactivity, typically associated with discrepancy detection, whereas extraversion and self-consciousness were associated with lateral and medial frontoparietal networks, respectively, typically associated with task-focused (lateral) or self-focused (medial) controlled processes. We also examined whether the neural measure of neuroticism would predict a relevant behavioral outcome better than self-reports would. Interoceptive accuracy, an outcome associated with neuroticism, was better accounted for by dACC reactivity (r2 = .74) than by self-reported neuroticism (r2 = .16), suggesting that neural reactivities may provide a more direct measure of personality than self-reports do.

Adult↗

PubMed2004

[The study for development of day hospital program of eating disorders].

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to develop the day hospital program for Korean eating disorders patients and to examine the effect of the day hospital program on improving frequency of binging and purging, eating disorders symptoms, self-esteem, and depression. METHOD: The subjects were 24 binge eaters visited at eating disorders clinic "M". They participated in a modified day hospital program based on the Toronto Day Hospital Program. All subjects completed the Eating Disorders Inventory(EDI)-2, Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, Beck Depression Inventory(BDI) at pre and post intervention, and recorded daily food records. RESULT: In paired t-test analysis, frequency of binging and purging, self-esteem, depression, and 11 sub-scales of EDI-2(drive for thinness, bulimia, body dissatisfaction, ineffectiveness, interoceptive awareness, perfectionism, interpersonal distrust, maturity fear, asceticism, impulse regulation, social insecurity) were significantly improved after treatment. CONCLUSION: The results of this study suggest that the day hospital program for Korean eating disorders patients may be an effective initial approach to overcoming various eating disorders symptoms. Further studies should investigate longer term outcome data using a larger sample.

Adult↗

PubMed1976

[Effect of copper, manganese and cobalt ions on the chemical sensitivity of interoceptors].

Acute experiments were conducted on 82 cats; a study was made of the influence of copper, manganese and cobalt on the chemical sensitivity of interoceptors. Administration of copper chloride caused inversion of the reflex reactions of the blood pressure and respiration to acetylcholine, cobalt chloride weakened these reactions, and manganese chloride intensified them. It is supposed that changes in the interoceptive reflexes observed depended chiefly on the direct action of microelements on the functional condition of the interoceptors.

Animals↗

PubMed1976

[Reactivity of isolated arteries from hypertensive rabbits].

Isolated vessels (aorta thoracica, a pulmonalis, a. femoralis, a. renalis) of neurogenous-interoceptive and nephrogenous hypertensive rabbits showed a changed sensitivity to several vasoactive agents. An increased reactivity to noradrenaline, histamine, and serotonin in the aorta of neurogenous hypertensive rabbits, in the a. pulmonalis of neurogenous and renal hypertensive rabbits and in the a. femoralis of renal hypertensive animals in comparison with controls could be shown. Also registered was a hyperactivity to BaCl2 and KCl. All vessels of hypertensive rabbits were hyporeactive to angiotensin. They increased vascular reactivity was seen already in the 3rd week after removal of one kideny and pressoric receptors respectively. It is supposed that a "true supersensitivity" of the vascular smooth muscle cells of the hypertensive arteries does exist.

Angiotensin II↗

PubMed1999

Conditioned effects produced by naltrexone doses that reduce ethanol-reinforced responding in rhesus monkeys.

Clinical trials have shown that naltrexone is effective in treating alcohol dependence; nausea and dysphoria have been reported as "side effects" in many of these studies. In primates, naltrexone reduces reinforced responding for oral ethanol, sucrose, and phencyclidine. This study was designed to determine if naltrexone reduces reinforced responding for various solutions by producing an interoceptive stimulus that may result in a conditioned taste aversion. Four opioid antagonist-naive rhesus monkeys responded for solutions from a two-spout operant panel for 30 min per day. During a conditioning phase, the monkeys received novel Kool-Aid solutions paired with either saline or naltrexone (0.32 mg/kg) given 30 min before the session. The monkeys then had seven choice sessions between the saline-paired solution or the naltrexone-paired solution. During the conditioning phase, the naltrexone reduced responding after five naltrexone/solution pairings. In addition, a conditioned taste aversion was produced; the naltrexone-paired solution maintained significantly less responding than did the saline-paired solution during the choice phase. In the next phase, the saline and naltrexone were given "unpaired" from any distinct part of the operant session, and another seven choice sessions followed. Naltrexone had no effect when given "unpaired" from the operant session. Then, another conditioning phase was undertaken followed by another series of choice sessions. During the replication of the conditioning, naltrexone reduced responding by the second pairing, although no conditioned aversion was observed in the subsequent choice sessions. Thus, given in the same manner (dose, route, and pretreatment time) as situations in which naltrexone reduces oral ethanol-, sucrose-, and phencyclidine-reinforced responding, naltrexone produced a conditioned taste aversion. These results suggest that naltrexone-induced nausea and its conditioned effects should be considered in naltrexone's effect in alcoholics.

Alcohol Drinking↗

PubMed1999

Naltrexone reduces ethanol- and/or water-reinforced responding in rhesus monkeys: effect depends upon ethanol concentration.

BACKGROUND: The opioid antagonist naltrexone reduces responding for ethanol. If naltrexone produces this effect by blocking ethanol-induced opioid activity, then naltrexone should reduce responding for ethanol regardless of level of the ethanol responding relative to an alternatively available reinforcer. In addition, if naltrexone competitively blocks ethanol-induced opioid activity, then the naltrexone effect may be surmountable by increasing ethanol concentration and, thus, ethanol intake (g/kg). This study was conducted to determine whether naltrexone will selectively reduce ethanol-reinforced responding when the ethanol concentration is varied such that ethanol fluid deliveries are less than, greater than, or equal to the fluid deliveries of concurrently available water. METHODS: Four adult male rhesus monkeys were allowed to respond for ethanol or water concurrently for 2 hr per day. Ethanol concentration was either 2%, 8%, or 32%. On various days, either saline or naltrexone (0.1 mg/kg) was given intramuscularly 30 min before the drinking session. RESULTS: When ethanol fluid deliveries were greater than those of water (at 2% ethanol), naltrexone reduced responding for ethanol. When the ethanol and water fluid deliveries were approximately equal (at 8% ethanol), naltrexone reduced both ethanol and water fluid deliveries. When water fluid deliveries were greater than those of ethanol (at 32% ethanol), naltrexone reduced responding for water. CONCLUSIONS: Thus, naltrexone reduced responding for the preferred fluid, either ethanol or water, depending on ethanol concentration. The effect was not surmountable by increasing ethanol concentration and, therefore, ethanol intake (g/kg). Naltrexone may reduce ethanol-reinforced responding by a mechanism other than that of blocking ethanol-induced opioid activity. Naltrexone may be inducing an aversive interoceptive state.

Animals↗

PubMed1999

Drug-onset cues as signals: intraadministration associations and tolerance.

On the basis of a conditioning analysis of drug tolerance, drug-associated cues become associated with the drug effect. These cues elicit conditional compensatory responses and modulate the expression of tolerance. Although there are many findings consistent with the conditioning analysis of tolerance, there also are contrary findings. The results of these experiments suggest that some of the apparently contradictory findings result because interoceptive pharmacological cues, as well as exteroceptive environmental cues, are paired with a drug effect. That is, within each administration, early drug-onset cues may become associated with the later, larger drug effect, and these pharmacological cues may overshadow simultaneously present environmental cues. We demonstrate the contribution of such intraadministration associations to tolerance to the analgesic effect of morphine and to the expression of conditional compensatory hyperalgesia.

Animals↗

PubMed1999

Discriminative stimulus effects of zolpidem in squirrel monkeys: comparison with conventional benzodiazepines and sedative-hypnotics.

The present study examined whether zolpidem, an imidazopyridine with selectivity for benzodiazepine (BZ)/gamma-aminobutyric acid(A) receptors containing the alpha1-subunit, had discriminative stimulus effects similar to typical BZs and other sedative/hypnotic drugs in primates. Squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus) were trained to discriminate zolpidem (1.0 mg/kg i.v.) from vehicle under a 10-response fixed-ratio schedule of food delivery. Under test conditions, zolpidem (0.1-3.0 mg/kg) increased responding on the drug lever to an average maximum of 90% of total responding. When pretreatment times were varied from 5 to 50 min, the discriminative stimulus effects of zolpidem were maximal at 5 min and near control levels 35 min after administration. Flumazenil antagonized both the discriminative stimulus and rate-decreasing effects of zolpidem in a dose-dependent and surmountable fashion (in vivo apparent pA(2) values of 7.3 and 6.6 for the discriminative stimulus and rate-suppressing effects, respectively). The BZs triazolam, midazolam, diazepam, and N-desmethyldiazepam engendered dose-related increases in drug-lever responding that reached zolpidem-like levels (90%) in the majority of monkeys tested. In contrast, lorazepam, chlordiazepoxide, and oxazepam engendered average maximums of 70% or less and substituted fully for zolpidem in one or two monkeys only. Representative barbiturates as well as drugs that bind to non-BZ sites (muscimol, baclofen, buspirone, cyproheptadine, diphenhydramine) engendered 0 to 45% of responses on the drug lever up to doses that markedly reduced response rate. These results support the view that zolpidem's selectivity for the alpha1-subunit of the BZ/gamma-aminobutyric acid(A) receptor complex confers a distinctive profile of interoceptive effects that overlaps partially with those of typical BZs but not with those of barbiturates.

Animals↗

PubMed2000

Fetal associative learning mediated through maternal alcohol intoxication.

BACKGROUND: The aim of the present study was to analyze whether alcohol as an unconditioned stimulus is capable of supporting associative learning in near-term fetuses. METHODS: In experiment 1, we determined pharmacokinetic profiles of alcohol and of an aromatic substance (cineole) in amniotic fluid and maternal blood during late gestation. The results obtained through gas chromatographic analysis allowed a second experiment in which we explicitly paired peak levels of cineole with peak levels of alcohol in amniotic fluid and blood, by intragastrically administering cineole and ethanol to the dams during gestational days 17 through 20 (paired condition). Control groups were dams given cineole 4 hr before commencement of an acute state of alcohol intoxication (long-delay group) or were only exposed to water administrations (water control group). The progeny were evaluated during postnatal day 16 in terms of behavioral responsiveness to intraorally infused solutions (cineole or alcohol presented in milk vehicle, or milk alone). RESULTS: Mouthing responsiveness to cineole was strongly affected by the nature of prenatal treatments. Pups in the paired prenatal condition mouthed significantly less than did long-delay and water controls. Physical and behavioral measures allowed us to reject the possibility that these effects were due to teratogenic effects of alcohol during late gestation. CONCLUSIONS: These results indicate that before birth, rat fetuses are capable of acquiring associative memories supported by the unconditioned properties of alcohol. This associative memory can be expressed during infancy through a significant reduction in mouth movements in the presence of the specific orosensory cue explicitly paired with alcohol interoceptive effects in utero.

Alcoholic Intoxication↗

PubMedDate not supplied

[Effect of acceleration on the sugar content of rabbit cerebrospinal fluid].

The sugar content in the liquor of rabbits exposed to accelerations ranging from several minutes to several hours was studied. The animals were accelerated at 3 g in a centrifuge with a radius of 55 cm and a velocity of 70 rpm, in the Khilov's swing and in a rotating device simulating angular accelerations. The liquor was sampled by the suboccipital puncture and the sugar content was measured according to Hagedorn-Jensen. A statistically significant increase in the sugar content was noted after every exposure to accelerations of alternating signs than with accelerations of a constant value. The experiments on labyrinth-ectomized animals showed a certain effect of the vestibular analyzer on the carbohydrate metabolism. However, when the equilibrium function reached compensation, the sugar content in the liquor returned to the pretest level. Therefore, this reaction involves not only the vestibular system but also the optic, proprio- and interoceptive afferent systems. A comparison of the intracysternal and intramuscular injections of epinephrine points to the central (in contrast to the hematogenic) nature of an increase in the sugar content during the first minutes of acceleration. The electric stimulation of the anterior and posterior hypothalamus by means of implanted electrodes produced the same elevation of the liquor sugar as accelerations. It can be postulated that afferent impulses from the analyzer systems reach the hypothalamic centers, thus exciting the autonomic system and, first of all, the sympathic system.

Acceleration↗