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PubMedDate not supplied

Expressive language development of children exposed to cocaine prenatally: literature review and report of a prospective cohort study.

It was hypothesized that prenatal exposure to cocaine and other substances would be related to delayed expressive language development. Speech and language data were available for 458 6-year olds (204 were exposed to cocaine). No significant univariate or multivariate differences by cocaine exposure group were observed. Classification and regression tree modeling was then used to identify language variable composites predictive of cocaine exposure status. Meaningful cut points for two language measures were identified and validated. Children with a type token ratio of less than 0.42 and with fewer than 97 word types were classified into a low language group. Low language children (n = 57) were more likely to be cocaine exposed (63.1%), with cocaine-exposed children 2.4 times more likely to be in the low language group compared with control children after adjustment for covariates. Prenatal cigarette, but not alcohol exposure, was also significantly related to expressive language delays.

Child↗

PubMed2003

Age constraints on first versus second language acquisition: evidence for linguistic plasticity and epigenesis.

Does age constrain the outcome of all language acquisition equally regardless of whether the language is a first or second one? To test this hypothesis, the English grammatical abilities of deaf and hearing adults who either did or did not have linguistic experience (spoken or signed) during early childhood were investigated with two tasks, timed grammatical judgement and untimed sentence to picture matching. Findings showed that adults who acquired a language in early life performed at near-native levels on a second language regardless of whether they were hearing or deaf or whether the early language was spoken or signed. By contrast, deaf adults who experienced little or no accessible language in early life performed poorly. These results indicate that the onset of language acquisition in early human development dramatically alters the capacity to learn language throughout life, independent of the sensory-motor form of the early experience.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2004

Verbal and nonverbal predictors of early language problems: an analysis of twins in early childhood back to infancy.

We investigated infant precursors of low language scores in early childhood. The sample included 373 probands in 130 monozygotic (MZ) and 109 same-sex dizygotic (DZ) twin pairs in which at least one member of the pair scored in the lowest 15th percentile of a control sample on a general language factor derived from tester-administered tests at 4 ; 6. From data at 2 ; 0, 3 ; 0 and 4 ; 0 the antecedents of poor language performance at 4 ; 6 for these probands were compared to 290 control children. As early as 2 ; 0, language measures substantially predicted low-language status at 4 ; 6, with predictions increasing at 3 ; 0 and 4 ; 0. Nonverbal cognitive development at 3 ; 0 and 4 ; 0 was nearly as predictive of low language at 4 ; 6 as were the language measures. Behaviour problems were also significant predictors of low language status although the associations were only about half as strong. Bivariate genetic analyses indicated that these predictions are mediated by both genetic and shared environmental links.

Child, Preschool↗

PubMed2003

Broca's area and the language instinct.

Language acquisition in humans relies on abilities like abstraction and use of syntactic rules, which are absent in other animals. The neural correlate of acquiring new linguistic competence was investigated with two functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies. German native speakers learned a sample of 'real' grammatical rules of different languages (Italian or Japanese), which, although parametrically different, follow the universal principles of grammar (UG). Activity during this task was compared with that during a task that involved learning 'unreal' rules of language. 'Unreal' rules were obtained manipulating the original two languages; they used the same lexicon as Italian or Japanese, but were linguistically illegal, as they violated the principles of UG. Increase of activation over time in Broca's area was specific for 'real' language acquisition only, independent of the kind of language. Thus, in Broca's area, biological constraints and language experience interact to enable linguistic competence for a new language.

Adult↗

PubMed2005

Preschool teachers' perceptions and reactions to challenging classroom behavior: implications for speech-language pathologists.

Awareness of issues of social competence and challenging behavior related to childhood language an communication disorders has been increasing. The purpose of this clinical exchange is to provide speech-language pathologists with basic information on communication disorders and challenging behaviors, as well as with insights into ways to support both students and classroom teachers. To provide effective services to children with language impairments and optimally support classroom staff, speech-language pathologists need to recognize (a) the interdependence of language, communication, social competence, and challenging behaviors; (b) the significance that challenging behaviors can have on evaluations of academic competency; and (c) how teachers in early childhood classrooms perceive and react to challenging behaviors. This clinical exchange provides an overview of the relationship between language, communication, and social competence, and presents preliminary survey research data investigating teachers' perceptions and reactions to challenging behaviors. Clinical implications are discussed, including considerations for intervention with children who may exhibit challenging behaviors in combination with language disabilities, and the speech-language pathologist's instrumental role in educating and supporting classroom staff to use communication strategies when managing challenging classroom behaviors.

Achievement↗

PubMed2003

The stability of primary language disorder: four years after kindergarten diagnosis.

The rates of change in the language status of children with language impairment unaccompanied by other developmental or sensory disorders (primary language disorder) were studied in a longitudinal sample of 196 children who were followed from kindergarten through 4th grade. Previous studies have shown that children with such language impairments have moderate rates of improvement during this age range. Also, those with the most specific deficits have the greatest likelihood of improvement. Cole and colleagues have hypothesized that such results could be due to the effect of regression to the mean (K. Cole, I. Schwartz, A. Notari, P. Dale, & P. Mills, 1995). This study used a baseline measure of language that was independent of the measure used for diagnosis in order to control for factors leading to regression to the mean. Patterns of change using the kindergarten diagnostic measure were compared to those using the baseline measure. Rates of diagnostic change between kindergarten and subsequent observation intervals showed patterns of change similar to those of past research. Comparisons using the baseline measure revealed no significant change in relative language status across the 4-year time period. The results showed that when the conditions for regression to the mean were controlled, the poor language of children with language impairments was very likely to persist during the primary school years.

Analysis of Variance↗

PubMed1991

Approaches to the prediction of language abilities in a sample of children who have developmental delays.

Prediction of the quality of language was explored using planned comparisons of three approaches, one cognitive, one neurodevelopmental, and one a combination of the two. Subjects were 37 children, ages 5-9 years, whose significant developmental delays included language and speech skills. The cognitive predictors were mental age (MA) and IQ from the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale. Neurodevelopmental predictors consisted of fine motor skill quotients (MQs) and dichotic speech processing scores. Chronological age (CA) was also evaluated as a predictor. A composite language ability score constituted the dependent variable. Results of regression analyses showed that CA and MQ, and MA and MQ, were nearly equal in their predictive strengths and were substantial predictors of composite language scores. Larger multiple correlations (low .8 range) were found when combinations of MA, IQ, and MQ or CA, IQ, and MQ were used as predictors. Statistical control over the 4-year age range revealed that approximately equal amounts of prediction of language scores were attributable to CA and a combination of MA, IQ, and MQ. Each of the latter variables contributed important amounts of unique variance to the language score prediction. Dichotic ear scores did not relate to cognitive or language scores and were ineffectual as predictors in regression analysis. Results indicated that children of the type studied have language and speech delays that show substantial relationships to their verbal cognitive abilities and MQs, in addition to their CAs.

Age Factors↗

PubMed1997

Symbolic play of children with language impairment: a critical review.

There have been a number of studies that have reported on the symbolic play abilities of children assessed as demonstrating developmental language disorders or specific language impairment. In general, this research has reported significant differences in the symbolic play abilities of children with language impairment and those developing language normally. In most, though interestingly, not all cases, the differences reflected less developed symbolic play of the children with language impairments. It will be argued here that these reported differences should not be interpreted as demonstrative of marked deficits in the general representational or specific symbolic play competence of children with language impairments. It will be argued further that part of the research conducted to date on the symbolic play abilities of children with language impairment has been confounded by the encroachment of language into the research procedures, that the level of play often investigated has not been unquestionably symbolic in nature, and that the actual differences in symbolic play have not been substantial.

Child, Preschool↗

PubMed2001

Arithmetic skills in kindergarten children with developmental language disorders.

Although arithmetic is not a language-based skill, a specific learning disability in arithmetic--dyscalculia--is commonly seen in children with developmental language disorders (DLD). The object of this study was to assess whether kindergarten children with DLD have impaired arithmetic skills and, if so, to correlate the pattern of dysfunction with language syndromes. Forty-two children with DLD attending mainstream kindergartens, and their matched controls, underwent an arithmetic battery, neurological examination, intelligence quotient (IQ) test (WPPSI/WISC-R) and language assessment (CELF-R).* Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) was diagnosed by psychological assessment and behaviour questionnaires. Results showed that children with DLD were similar to controls on performance IQ (104.2+/-12.1 and 109.4+/-12.7 respectively, p = NS), but inferior on both the CELF-R expressive (74.8+/-9.3 vs 95.2+/-15.1, p < 0.01) and receptive (77.5+/-10.0 vs 87.8+/-12.3, p < 0.01) language scores. Their performance on the arithmetic battery was also significantly poorer: 61.2+/-17.7 vs 77.4+/-13.7, p < 0.01. Low scores in reasoning principles and arithmetic operations were associated with both receptive and expressive language impairment, while poor performance on counting principles was primarily associated with expressive deficits. Mild motor signs and ADHD were more frequent in children with DLD (p < 0.01 and < 0.05, respectively). We concluded that the arithmetic impairment in children with DLD is pervasive, affecting a broad spectrum of skills. Whereas impairment of most arithmetic skills is associated with global language disturbances, counting correlates primarily with expressive language deficits. Anticipatory guidance by physicians will better prepare parents and educators for the multiple challenges facing children with DLD.

Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity↗

PubMed2002

Language-based intervention for phonological disorders.

Children with phonological disorders often display difficulty in other domains of language. Language-based approaches focus on all aspects of language; therefore, little attention may be drawn to sound errors and these may not be specific targets of intervention. These approaches involve a variety of naturalistic, conversationally based techniques such as focused stimulation in the form of expansions and recasts, scaffolding narratives, and elicited production devices such as forced choice questions, cloze tasks, and preparatory sets. Results from well-controlled group studies are inconclusive regarding the cross-domain effects of morphosyntax approaches on phonology. There are, however, individual children whose phonology improves with a language-based approach. Preliminary evidence suggests that such an approach may be an appropriate choice for children with both speech and language impairments whose phonological systems are highly inconsistent. One advantage of a language-based approach is that it may lead to simultaneous improvements in both speech and language for children with difficulty in both these domains. It is also a viable option when service delivery dictates classroom and collaborative settings. When a language-based approach is chosen for children with phonological disorders, it is imperative that the practitioner monitor phonological progress closely to ensure its effectiveness.

Child↗

PubMed2000

The implications of childhood bacterial meningitis for language development.

Bacterial meningitis is a life threatening infection of the central nervous system. This illness is most prevalent early in life when the healthy child is rapidly acquiring language. This study investigated whether children with a history of bacterial meningitis were at risk for language difficulties post illness. Thirty post-meningitic children, aged between 9 years 0 months and 11 years 0 months, participated in this study. Each subject was administered a measure of non-verbal cognitive ability and a range of language tasks. These children performed poorly on applied language tasks, which tap skills used in effective discourse. These deficits occurred despite age appropriate performances on measures of linguistic/grammatical knowledge. These findings clearly illustrate that bacterial meningitis has implications for ongoing language development, which emphasises the importance of long term follow up. In developmental terms, this discrepancy between verbal knowledge and problem solving represents a dissociation between language skills which develop early in life and those which emerge later. This pattern of results suggests that bacterial meningitis may result in a delay in language development. A young age at illness was identified as an additional risk factor for adverse outcome. This study highlights the need to inform parents/guardians that post-meningitic children are at risk for experiencing language difficulties throughout childhood.

Brain Damage, Chronic↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Verbal deficits in Down's syndrome and specific language impairment: a comparison.

BACKGROUND: Down's syndrome is a chromosome disorder characterized by a range of physical and psychological conditions, including language impairment. The severity of impairment is variable, and some components of the language system appear to be more affected than others. This description could also be applied to typically developing children diagnosed with specific language impairment. AIMS: To compare findings from the largely separate research literatures on these conditions, and to address the questions about whether the language pathology associated with Down's syndrome could be the same as that described as specific language impairment in typical development, and whether the two conditions could have similar causes. MAIN CONTRIBUTION: Research studies suggest similar patterns of language impairment in the two populations, and some similarities in underlying processing deficits. CONCLUSIONS: Future research should consider whether similarities in the language behaviours associated with Down's syndrome and specific language impairment could be related to similarities at other levels of analysis, including neurological development and genetics.

Child↗

PubMed1998

Prospective and retrospective studies of recovery in aphasia. Changes in cerebral blood flow and language functions.

Prospective and retrospective language evaluations and single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) scans were performed in order to study the relationship between post-stroke recovery from aphasia and changes in cerebral blood flow (CBF) in groups of patients who had made a good recovery and those who had not. For the prospective study, 20 right-handed patients with aphasia secondary to an acute cerebrovascular accident (CVA) in the left middle cerebral artery territory received language evaluations with a Japanese Standard Language Test of Aphasia (SLTA), and SPECT scans performed twice, at a mean of 3.2 and a mean of 9.2 months post-onset. Only one slice of SPECT data was analysed. A significant correlation was observed between the severity of the initial language deficit and initial CBF on the left side, but not the right. Initial CBF was not a predictor for future language recovery in either hemisphere. There was a correlation between the change in the left mean hemispheric CBF (but not the right) and the change in the overall SLTA severity rating from 3 to 9 months post-stroke. In the retrospective study, 16 right-handed patients with residual aphasia secondary to CVA in the left middle cerebral artery territory received SLTA and SPECT at a mean of 82.8 months post-onset. The patients had also received initial language evaluation with SLTA at a mean of 6.5 months post-onset. In contrast to the prospective study, the results demonstrated that the mean left hemispheric CBF at approximately 7 years post-onset did not differ between good and poor recovery groups. However, the mean right hemispheric CBF of the good recovery group was higher than that of the poor recovery group in the frontal and the thalamic regions, and also in the left frontal region. The results of these complementary studies suggest that the initial language recovery within the first year post-onset may be linked primarily to functional recovery in the dominant hemisphere, where an increase in CBF was observed at 9 months post-onset. The increased perfusion adjacent to the lesion may be crucial for early recovery in aphasia. Subsequent language recovery and the long-term recovery in aphasia may be related to slow and gradual compensatory functions in the contralateral hemisphere, specifically in the homotopic frontal and thalamic areas.

Adult↗

PubMed2001

The neural organization of discourse: an H2 15O-PET study of narrative production in English and American sign language.

In order to identify brain regions that play an essential role in the production of discourse, H2 15O-PET scans were acquired during spontaneous generation of autobiographical narratives in English and in American Sign Language in hearing subjects who were native users of both. We compared languages that differ maximally in their mode of expression yet share the same core linguistic properties in order to differentiate the stages of discourse production: differences between the languages should reflect later, modality-dependent stages of phonological encoding and articulation; congruencies are more likely to reveal the anatomy of earlier modality-independent stages of conceptualization and lexical access. Common activations were detected in a widespread array of regions; left hemisphere language areas classically related to speech were also robustly activated during sign production, but the common neural architecture extended beyond the classical language areas and included extrasylvian regions in both right and left hemispheres. Furthermore, posterior perisylvian and basal temporal regions appear to play an integral role in spontaneous self-generated formulation and production of language, even in the absence of exteroceptive stimuli. Results additionally indicate that anterior and posterior areas may play distinct roles in early and late stages of language production, and suggest a novel model for lateralization of cerebral activity during the generation of discourse: progression from the early stages of lexical access to later stages of articulatory-motor encoding may constitute a progression from bilateral to left-lateralized activation. This pattern is not predicted by the standard Wernicke-Geschwind model, and may become apparent when language is produced in an ecologically valid context.

Adult↗

PubMed2004

Do women really have more bilateral language representation than men? A meta-analysis of functional imaging studies.

Sex differences in cognition are consistently reported, men excelling in most visuospatial tasks and women in certain verbal tasks. It has been hypothesized that these sex differences in cognition results from a more bilateral pattern of language representation in women than in men. This bilateral pattern of language representation in women is thought to interfere with visuospatial functions in the right hemisphere. To test whether language representation is indeed more bilateral in the female than in the male brain, a meta-analysis was performed on studies that assessed language activity with functional imaging in healthy men and women. Effect sizes were weighted for sample size and the meta-analytic method was applied to obtain a combined effect size. Fourteen studies were included, providing data on 377 men and 442 women. Meta-analysis yielded a mean weighted effect d of 0.21 with a 95% confidence interval of -0.05 to 0.48, indicating no significant difference in language lateralization between men and women. This implies that the putative sex difference in language lateralization may be absent at the population level, or may be observed only with some, as yet not defined, language tasks. It is therefore not likely that differences in language lateralization underlie the general sex differences in cognitive performance, and the neuronal basis for these cognitive sex differences remains elusive.

Brain↗

PubMed1994

Is specific language impairment a valid diagnostic category? Genetic and psycholinguistic evidence.

Specific language impairment (SLI) is diagnosed when a child fails to develop language normally for no apparent reason: hearing and intelligence are adequate and the social environment is unexceptional. Definitions of SLI typically specify that the child must have a substantial discrepancy between language ability and non-verbal IQ. However, data from a twin study question the validity of this requirement, and indicate that SLI is not genetically distinct from less specific disorders where language impairment occurs in the context of low average or borderline non-verbal ability. A second question concerns the heterogeneous language symptoms seen in SLI: do these correspond to distinct conditions, or to different phenotypic manifestations of a common underlying disorder, or are they merely random variations resulting from unreliable assessments? The last of these possibilities is ruled out by the finding that twins who are concordant for language disorder show good agreement in terms of the pattern of language impairment. However, systematic variation in the age and ability of children in different SLI subgroups suggest that these may correspond to variable manifestations of a core inherited language disorder, rather than distinct diagnostic entities.

Cognition Disorders↗

PubMedDate not supplied

A study of language skills in severely subnormal children.

A study of 37 severely subnormal children, comparing their language development with their non-verbal ability, is described. The test scores obtained by the 17 children with Down's syndrome were compared with those of the remaining 20 children ("others); a cross-sectional examination of the effects of increasing chronological age was made; and an assessment of speech intelligibility was compared with language scale scores. The results show that the children as a group had a language deficit compared with their non-verbal ability, and that their verbal comprehension tended to be poorer than their expressive language ability. Children with Down's syndrome tended to have inferior language ability through the differences between their scores and those of the "others" were not statistically significant. An association between poor intelligibility of speech and low expressive language scores was demonstrated. The results are discussed in the context of other studies. Possible reasons for the patterns of language development observed are suggested, and the practical implications, particularly the need for careful attention to the language development of severely subnormal children from an early age, are considered.

Child↗

PubMed2005

Influence of family environment on language outcomes in children with myelomeningocele.

BACKGROUND: Previously, our studies demonstrated language differences impacting academic performance among children with myelomeningocele and shunted hydrocephalus (MMSH). This follow-up study considers the environmental facilitators within families (achievement orientation, intellectual-cultural orientation, active recreational orientation, independence) among a cohort of children with MMSH and their relationship to language performance. METHODS: Fifty-eight monolingual, English-speaking children (36 females; mean age: 10.1 years; age range: 7-16 years) with MMSH were evaluated. Exclusionary criteria were prior shunt infection; seizure or shunt malfunction within the previous 3 months; uncorrected visual or auditory impairments; prior diagnoses of mental retardation or attention deficit disorder. The Comprehensive Assessment of Spoken Language (CASL) and the Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence (WASI) were administered individually to all participants. The CASL Measures four subsystems: lexical, syntactic, supralinguistic and pragmatic. Parents completed the Family Environment Scale (FES) questionnaire and provided background demographic information. Spearman correlation analyses and partial correlation analyses were performed. RESULTS: Mean intelligence scores for the MMSH group: full scale IQ 92.2 (SD = 11.9). The CASL revealed statistically significant difficulty for supralinguistic and pragmatic (or social) language tasks. FES scores fell within the average range for the group. Spearman correlation and partial correlation analyses revealed statistically significant positive relationships for the FES 'intellectual-cultural orientation' variable and performance within the four language subsystems. Socio-economic status (SES) characteristics were analyzed and did not discriminate language performance when the intellectual-cultural orientation factor was taken into account. CONCLUSION: The role of family facilitators on language skills in children with MMSH has not previously been described. The relationship between language performance and the families' value on intellectual/cultural activities seems both statistically and intuitively sound. Focused interest in the integration of family values and practices should assist developmental specialists in supporting families and children within their most natural environment.

Adolescent↗