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PubMed1983

Measurement of total body electrical conductivity: a new method for estimation of body composition.

A new method for the estimation of body composition in human subjects is described which entails the measurement of total body electrical conductivity. The method is based on the principle that the electrical conductivity of lean tissue is far greater than that of fat. Comparative studies in 19 adults of widely varying fatness have demonstrated excellent correlations between the total electrical conductivity of the subjects and both their total body water (r = 0.87) and total body potassium (r = 0.86). This noninvasive method, which is safe, simple, rapid, and convenient, should prove useful in the nutritional assessment of individuals and populations.

Adult↗

PubMed1998

Body composition measurement: a review of hydrodensitometry, anthropometry, and impedance methods.

Human body composition is an expression of genetic and nutritional factors. It can change as a consequence of exogenous influences such as training, disease, or diet and is therefore of particular interest to nutrition professionals. Two of the main methods of estimating body composition in this review (hydrodensitometry and anthropometry) have been in use for decades, but the third method (bioelectrical impedance) is more recent. The procedure, theoretical basis, assumptions, standard error of estimates, and comparisons with other techniques are presented for each of the three methods. References to general and specific populations are presented that illustrate regression equations for different ages, ethnic groups, and gender. The advantages and disadvantages of the three methods are reviewed with reference made to the alternative compartment models. Other methods (DEXA, infrared interactance) are briefly reviewed.

Anthropometry↗

PubMed2001

Race and sex effects on the association between muscle strength, soft tissue, and bone mineral density in healthy elders: the Health, Aging, and Body Composition Study.

Two factors generally reported to influence bone density are body composition and muscle strength. However, it is unclear if these relationships are consistent across race and sex, especially in older persons. If differences do exist by race and/or sex, then strategies to maintain bone mass or minimize bone loss in older adults may need to be modified accordingly. Therefore, we examined the independent effects of bone mineral-free lean mass (LM), fat mass (FM), and muscle strength on regional and whole body bone mineral density (BMD) in a cohort of 2,619 well-functioning older adults participating in the Health, Aging, and Body Composition (Health ABC) Study with complete measures. Participants included 738 white women, 599 black women, 827 white men, and 455 black men aged 70-79 years. BMD (g/cm2) of the femoral neck, whole body, upper and lower limb, and whole body and upper limb bone mineral-free LM and FM was assessed by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA). Handgrip strength and knee extensor torque were determined by dynamometry. In analyses stratified by race and sex and adjusted for a number of confounders, LM was a significant (p < 0.001) determinant of BMD, except in white women for the lower limb and whole body. In women, FM also was an independent contributor to BMD at the femoral neck, and both FM and muscle strength contributed to limb BMD. The following were the respective beta-weights (regression coefficients for standardized data, Std beta) and percent difference in BMD per unit (7.5 kg) LM: femoral neck, 0.202-0.386 and 4.7-5.9%; lower limb, 0.209-0.357 and 2.9-3.5%; whole body, 0.239-0.484 and 3.0-4.7%; and upper limb (unit = 0.5 kg), 0.231-0.407 and 3.1-3.4%. Adjusting for bone size (bone mineral apparent density [BMAD]) or body size BMD/height) diminished the importance of LM, and the contributory effect of FM became more pronounced. These results indicate that LM and FM were associated with bone mineral depending on the bone site and bone index used. Where differences did occur, they were primarily by sex not race. To preserve BMD, maintaining or increasing LM in the elderly would appear to be an appropriate strategy, regardless of race or sex.

Absorptiometry, Photon↗

PubMed2003

Validity of six field and laboratory methods for measurement of body composition in boys.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the validity of the following six body composition methods against a reference method (three-component model): air displacement plethysmography (BODPOD); estimation from body density using BODPOD; skinfold thickness using the Slaughter equations; bioelectrical impedance, both leg-leg (TANITA) and hand-foot (Bodystat) approaches; and total body water. RESEARCH METHODS AND PROCEDURES: Forty-two healthy white 10- to 14-year-old boys (mean age, 12.9 +/- 1.0 years) were enrolled in this study. Measures of body fat percentage and body fat mass derived from the three-component model were used as the reference method. Validity of all of the other methods was assessed by comparison against the reference by calculation of biases and limits of agreement. RESULTS: Mean body fatness measured using the reference method was 16.4 +/- 11.6% and 8.7 +/- 7.0 kg. Estimates of fatness from total body water had the narrowest limits of agreement relative to the reference (+0.9 +/- 5.0% body fat; +0.5 +/- 2.9 kg fat mass). For all other methods tested, we observed large biases and very wide limits of agreement. DISCUSSION: This study suggests that the validity of newer field and laboratory methods for estimation of body composition is poor in adolescent boys. For applications where high accuracy of estimation at the individual level is essential, only reference methods would be acceptable.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2006

Effect of eating frequency on body composition in 9-11-year-old children.

The aim of this study was twofold: a) to examine the association between eating frequency and body composition in children, and b) to identify possible factors that may explain this relationship. Body composition (anthropometry) and dietary intake (3-day food records) were assessed in a cohort of 151 children. After excluding the underreporters (n = 20), data from 131 children (66 boys and 65 girls) aged 9.9 +/- 0.1 yr with a BMI of 19.6 +/- 0.4 kg/m (2) (means +/- se) were used for further analysis. Children were categorized in tertiles based on the daily number of eating episodes. Physical activity was assessed in a subgroup of 48 volunteers with 4-day accelerometry (RT3, Stayhealthy Inc., Monrovia, CA, USA). The number of eating episodes was inversely associated (p < 0.05) with the sum of skinfolds (r = - 0.17) and % body fat (r = - 0.18) after controlling for age and sex. Frequent eaters presented lower total (p < 0.05) and central adiposity (p < 0.01) compared with the infrequent ones. This was despite the fact that energy intake was higher for the frequent eaters (2077.0 +/- 64.3 vs. 1813.0 +/- 37.8 kcals/day for the frequent and the infrequent eaters, respectively, p < 0.05). Actually, frequent eaters devoted more time to physical activity than infrequent ones (624.7 +/- 13.5 vs. 559.2 +/- 23.1 min/day, p < 0.05). In conclusion, high eating frequency was associated with more favorable body composition in this cohort of school children. Increased energy expenditure due to physical activity may, at least in part, explain the favorable body composition of children who eat frequently.

Adiposity↗

PubMed2004

Body composition changes with age have gender-specific impacts on bone mineral density.

Body weight, smoking, alcohol, physical activity, and diet have been proven to affect bone mineral density (BMD) directly or indirectly. Of these, body weight is perhaps best known to affect BMD. However, there is some debate as to whether lean body mass (LBM) or fat mass (FM), the two components of body weight, most determines BMD. Recently, newer peripheral densitometry devices have been developed, which have the advantages of low cost and portability, and this has made field epidemiologic study of osteoporosis possible. As the number of studies that have focused on the contribution made by body composition to BMD is limited, we investigated the relative contribution of LBM and FM to BMD in healthy Korean subjects. 402 age- and weight-matched subjects over 45 years old were selected from a population-based cohort. The mean ages of men and women were 64.1 +/- 8.7 (mean +/- SD) and 64.2 +/- 12.7 years, and mean weights were 63.0 +/- 8.2 and 63.1 +/- 8.2 kg, respectively. BMD was measured by peripheral dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) and body composition by bioelectrical impedance. Sociodemographic characteristics and physical activities were investigated using a standard questionnaire delivered by face-to-face interview. BMDs were 0.48 +/- 0.01 and 0.37 +/- 0.11 g/cm2 in men and women, respectively. In men, age, weight, body mass index (BMI), LBM, FM, physical activity, smoking, alcohol, and education were significantly correlated with BMD. In women, age, weight, BMI, LBM, FM, education, years since menopause, number of deliveries, and number of children breast-fed were significantly correlated with BMD. By multiple regression, LBM, education, smoking, and alcohol in men, and age, LBM, FM, smoking, and number of delivery in women were independent determinants of BMD. LBM was an important contributor for BMD in men, but both LBM and FM were equally important contributors in female to BMD. This stems from the fact that body composition changes with age differ in men and women. Thus, the augmentation of muscle mass in men and the maintenance of an optimal weight in women act to prevent osteoporosis.

Aged↗

PubMed1998

Effects of successful adenomectomy on body composition in acromegaly.

The purpose of the present study was to investigate postsurgical change in body composition in patients who have undergone surgery for acromegaly. Eight patients with acromegaly had determination of serum GH, insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I), height, body weight, and bioelectric impedance before surgery and at 2 weeks, 1 month, 3 months, and 6 months after surgery. Body composition was analyzed by bioelectric impedance analysis (BIA). We analyzed body fat (BF), body lean mass (BLM), body cell mass (BCM), total body water (TBW), intracellular water (ICW) and extracellular water (ECW). The serum GH concentration and IGF-I had decreased significantly 2 weeks after surgery. Body weight had decreased significantly 1 month after surgery and recovered 3 months after surgery. BIA showed that TBW and BCM had decreased significantly 2 weeks after surgery. BF gradually increased up to 1 month after surgery and was increased significantly at 3 months after surgery. The percent ratio of TBW/body weight decreased and the percent ratio of BF/body weight increased during the 6 months after surgery. The percent ratio of ECW/TBW did not change during the 6 months following surgery. In conclusion, the rapid body weight loss which occurred within 2 weeks after surgery was caused by decreases in TBW and BCM. The recovery of body weight, which was seen later than 1 month after surgery, was caused by an increase in BF. The postoperative change in body composition in acromegaly ceased 3 months after surgery.

Acromegaly↗

PubMed1996

Body composition and childhood obesity.

Underwater weighing has been the gold standard for the measurement of body composition in humans; however, the two formulas widely used, the Siri and Bronze, were developed using young adult white males. The development of newer techniques in the past 20 years has greatly expanded the accuracy and ease of measuring body composition. These methods have improved the ability to model relationships between body compartments. This article reviews the compartmental models and then critiques the methods available to measure body composition.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2006

Bayesian analyses of multiple epistatic QTL models for body weight and body composition in mice.

To comprehensively investigate the genetic architecture of growth and obesity, we performed Bayesian analyses of multiple epistatic quantitative trait locus (QTL) models for body weights at five ages (12 days, 3, 6, 9 and 12 weeks) and body composition traits (weights of two fat pads and five organs) in mice produced from a cross of the F1 between M16i (selected for rapid growth rate) and CAST/Ei (wild-derived strain of small and lean mice) back to M16i. Bayesian model selection revealed a temporally regulated network of multiple QTL for body weight, involving both strong main effects and epistatic effects. No QTL had strong support for both early and late growth, although overlapping combinations of main and epistatic effects were observed at adjacent ages. Most main effects and epistatic interactions had an opposite effect on early and late growth. The contribution of epistasis was more pronounced for body weights at older ages. Body composition traits were also influenced by an interacting network of multiple QTLs. Several main and epistatic effects were shared by the body composition and body weight traits, suggesting that pleiotropy plays an important role in growth and obesity.

Animals↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Association between bone, body composition and strength in premenarcheal girls and postmenopausal women.

AIM: The study examined whether associations between bone, body composition and strength are age dependent. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: Two age levels (premenarcheal girls and postmenopausal women on HRT) were studied in a 10-month follow-up. Bone, lean and fat mass were measured by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA), and strength was measured using an isokinetic dynamometer. RESULTS: In girls, significant correlations were found between mass (lean, fat and body mass), strength and most bone characteristics (r = 0.15-0.93). At the proximal femur changes in bone mineral density (BMD) were moderately related to changes in body composition. In the women, body mass and lean mass were significantly correlated with most bone characteristics (r = 0.34-0.82). Low to moderate correlations were observed between changes in bone and changes in body composition. After controlling for lean mass the relation between strength and bone was no longer significant. CONCLUSIONS: In premenarcheal girls, bone is partly determined by mass, with lean mass the most important predictor at the femoral sites. In postmenopausal women, lean mass is an important determinant of bone mineral content (BMC) and BMD, but changes in BMD are related to changes in fat. The relation between strength and BMD is mainly attributable to the relation between lean mass and BMD. The contributory effects of soft tissue to bone change over different life periods.

Body Composition↗

PubMed1999

Long-term effect of growth hormone (GH) treatment on body composition in children with GH deficiency.

OBJECTIVE: It is important for GH-deficient children to treat abnormal body composition associated with a metabolic consequence, not only short stature. In this study we evaluated long-term effects of GH therapy on body composition in GH-deficient boys and girls. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: Forty-nine subjects with GH deficiency, 35 boys and 14 girls, 6 to 14 years of age, were studied. All the subjects were treated for three years with recombinant human GH at a weekly dosage of 0.5 IU/kg by subcutaneous daily injection. Body composition was measured by bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA 101, Spectrum II 287, RJL Systems, Detroit, Mich). RESULTS: Body fat (%) decreased significantly during the first three months of GH treatment. These values were maintained low thereafter in boys, in contrast to those which continued to tend upward in girls from the second year of the treatment. Lean body mass (kg) increased significantly with increasing extracellular water (kg) and body cell mass (kg) in both sexes during GH treatment. CONCLUSION: Our data demonstrate that GH can reduce body fat mass in GH-deficient boys and girls. The gender difference in changes in body fat with age during the course of this study is compatible with that observed in normal children. The rapid increase in extracellular water and the gradual increase in body cell mass both contributed to the steady increase in LBM during GH treatment.

Adipose Tissue↗

PubMed2006

Body composition analysis by dual X-ray absorptiometry: in vivo and in vitro comparison of three different fan-beam instruments.

BACKGROUND: Dual X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) is the preferred method for measuring body composition in clinical practice, but interchange between devices may pose problems with the interpretation of results. OBJECTIVE: To establish conversion equations for body composition variables between three fan-beam DXA systems. METHODS: Body composition was assessed in 21 subjects using Lunar Expert (Expert), Lunar Prodigy (Prodigy) and Hologic Delphi W (Delphi). Weekly measurements of Hologic whole body phantom 164 were performed. RESULTS: There were no significant differences between DXA-measured means of body weight, fat mass and lean body mass. Bland-Altman analysis revealed that Lunar Expert increasingly overestimated fat mass with increasing total mass (p<0.001) relative to Delphi and Prodigy, while Delphi produced a constant underestimation of fat mass. Correlations between scale weights and DXA-measured body weights, and between DXA-measured body weights and the sum of fat masses, lean body masses and bone mineral contents (BMC) between the three instruments, were excellent (Rsqr 0.998-0.910; p<0.001). Conversion factors to Prodigy for Expert and Delphi were respectively 1.003 and 1.011 for total body mass, 0.954 and 1.079 for fat mass, 1.018 and 0.967 for lean body mass and 1.049 and 1.136 for BMC (Rsqr 0.999-0.991; p<0.001). Standard error of estimate (SEE) for the slopes ranged from 0.20% to 2.10%. Phantom studies revealed stable instrument function with CV% commonly<2%, except for lean mass for Delphi (5.5%). CONCLUSIONS: Despite the significant differences in measurement of body composition between DXA fan-beam instruments, clinically relevant conversion factors can be established.

Absorptiometry, Photon↗

PubMed2000

Determinants of body composition in postmenopausal women.

BACKGROUND: Little is known about the effects of different levels of long-term physical activity on total body and regional fat and whether hormone replacement therapy interacts with physical activity level to affect body composition in postmenopausal women. METHODS: We determined the associations between different levels of habitual physical activity, hormone replacement therapy (HRT), and total and regional body composition in postmenopausal women. Twenty sedentary, 20 active nonathletic, and 23 endurance-trained women (approximately half on HRT) had total and regional body composition assessed by dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry. The athletes and active nonathletic women had been active for the same number of years and the same number of hours per week. RESULTS: The athletes and sedentary women weighed the same, but the active nonathletic groups on and not on HRT weighed 3-12 kg more (p < .05). Athletes had less trunk, arm, leg, and total body fat than sedentary and active nonathletic women (p < .05). Women on HRT tended to have lower total body (p = .07), but not regional, fat values. Linear regression analyses indicated that VO2max in ml/kg/min was the major independent determinant of total and regional body fat accounting for 52% to 70% of their variances. Athletes had greater caloric and carbohydrate intake than their less active peers, but all groups had similar protein, fat, saturated fat, monounsaturated fat, and polyunsaturated fat intakes. CONCLUSIONS: Intense training, but not low- to moderate-intensity physical activity, is associated with markedly lower levels of total and regional body fat in postmenopausal women. HRT has less of an effect on body composition than intense exercise training in postmenopausal women.

Adipose Tissue↗

PubMed1997

Body composition changes in elite male bodybuilders during preparation for competition.

Anthropometric profiles together with a 4 compartment criterion model of body composition analysis (total body water, bone mineral, fat and residual masses via a combination of deuterium dilution, dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry and hydrodensitometry) were conducted on 3 elite male bodybuilders 10 wk and then 5 d before competition. A mean body mass reduction from 99.70 (Quetelet's Index = 31.6 kg/m2) to 92.79 kg (Quetelet's Index = 29.2 kg/m2) was accompanied by a decline in the sum of 8 skinfold thicknesses (triceps, subscapular, biceps, iliac crest, supraspinale, abdominal, front thigh and medial calf) from 51.1 to 36.7 mm. The 4 compartment body composition model indicated that there were reductions of: percent body fat (%BF) from 9.1 to 5.0%, fat free mass (FFM) from 90.60 to 88.14 kg and fat mass (FM) from 9.10 to 4.65 kg. Sixty-four percent of the 6.91 kg loss in body mass therefore came from the FM. The 2 compartment hydrodensitometric model yielded higher %BFs (initial = 11.2; final = 7.1) than the 4 compartment model (initial = 9.1; final = 5.0) which is theoretically more valid because it controls for biological variability in the percentages of water and bone mineral in the FFM. Nevertheless, both models registered decreases of 4.1%BF.

Absorptiometry, Photon↗

PubMed2004

Body-composition changes in the simian immunodeficiency virus-infected juvenile rhesus macaque.

BACKGROUND: Body-composition changes are common in individuals infected with human immunodeficiency virus. The purpose of the present study was to measure, as a model of wasting in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), longitudinal body-composition changes in macaques infected with simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV). METHODS: Twelve juvenile macaques were inoculated with SIVmac239. Immunologic, virologic, somatometric, and dual-energy x-ray-absorptiometry measurements were performed prospectively every 4 weeks for 72 weeks and were compared to measurements taken from 8 uninfected control macaques. RESULTS: During the first 4 weeks, body-fat percentage decreased in the SIV-infected macaques while lean-tissue percentage increased; during weeks 4-72, these macaques lost a greater percentage of total fat tissue but had more subcutaneous-fat deposition than did the uninfected control macaques. Just prior to death, the SIV-infected macaques that died (n=7) had a greater loss in body-mass index, abdominal fat, fat tissue, and lean tissue, compared with that in SIV-infected macaques that survived (n=5). CONCLUSIONS: Body-composition changes in SIV-infected juvenile macaques exhibit 3 phases: during acute infection, loss of body weight from fat tissue; a compensation period during which macaques grow, but at a reduced rate; and a terminal phase, during which tissue is lost from all body compartments. The SIV-infected juvenile macaque provides a useful model for the investigation of wasting in AIDS, particularly for pediatric AIDS wasting.

Abdomen↗

PubMed2000

Effect of puberty on the relationship between circulating leptin and body composition.

Circulating concentrations of leptin are better correlated with absolute amounts of adipose tissue [fat mass (FM)] than with relative body fatness (body mass index or percent body fat). There is a clear sexual dimorphism in circulating concentrations of leptin (females > males) at birth and in adulthood. However, whether such dimorphism is present in the interval between these periods of development remains controversial. We examined body composition and clinical (Tanner stage) and endocrine (pituitary-gonadal axis hormones) aspects of sexual maturation in relationship to circulating concentrations of leptin in 102 children (53 males and 49 females, 6-19 yr of age) to evaluate the relationship between circulating leptin concentrations and body composition before and during puberty. Pubertal stage was assigned by physical examination (Tanner staging) and also assessed by measurement of plasma estradiol, testosterone, and pituitary gonadotropins. Body composition was determined by dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry and by anthropometry. Circulating concentrations of leptin in the postabsorptive state were determined by a solid-phase sandwich enzyme immunoassay. The effect of gender on the relationship between circulating leptin concentrations and FM was determined by ANOVA at each Tanner stage. Stepwise multiple linear regression analyses, including circulating concentrations of pituitary-gonadal axis hormones, and FM were performed, by gender, to determine whether the relationship between circulating concentrations of leptin and FM changes during puberty. Plasma leptin concentrations were significantly correlated with FM at all Tanner stages in males and females. Plasma leptin concentrations, normalized to FM, were significantly higher in females than males at Tanner stages IV and V but not at earlier stages of pubertal development. Plasma leptin concentrations, normalized to FM, were significantly greater in females at Tanner stage V compared with females at Tanner stage I and significantly lower in males at Tanner stage IV and V compared with males at Tanner stage I. These significant gender and maturational differences were confirmed by demonstrating that the regression equation relating circulating leptin concentrations to FM in females and males at Tanner stages IV and V were significantly different (predicted lower leptin concentrations in males than females with identical body composition) and that the regression equations relating circulating concentrations of leptin to FM in each gender before puberty (Tanner stage I) were significantly different (predicted higher plasma concentrations of leptin in prepubertal males and lower leptin concentrations in prepubertal females) than the same regression equations in later puberty. Circulating concentrations of testosterone were significant negative correlates of circulating concentrations of leptin normalized to FM in males when considered as a group over all pubertal stages. The inclusion in multivariate regression analyses of circulating concentrations of testosterone and estradiol, FM, fat-free mass, and gender did not eliminate a significant gender-effect (P < 0.05) on circulating concentrations of leptin at Tanner stages IV and V. The circulating concentration of leptin, normalized to FM, declines significantly in males and rises significantly in females late in puberty to produce a late-pubertal/adult sexual dimorphism. These studies confirm a potent role for gonadal steroids as mediators of this sexual dimorphism in circulating concentrations of leptin. (ABSTRACT TRUNCATED)

Absorptiometry, Photon↗

PubMed1963

Body composition: relative in vivo determinations from potassium-40 measurements.

Measurements of body composition from serial, in vivo determinations of potassium-40 were made on 51 obese human subjects who were placed on a low calorie diet. Weight losses in the group averaged from 12 to 36 pounds. There was no change in potassium content or in lean body weight. Weight loss resulted from the loss of excess body fat.

Adipose Tissue↗

PubMed2001

Body composition characteristics are associated with the bone density of the proximal femur end in middle- and old-aged women and men.

OBJECTIVES: In the present study the associations between bone density of the proximal femur end and weight status, fat distribution patterns (FDI) and body composition parameters i.e. amount of body fat and lean body mass were tested in a sample of old aged women and men. METHODS: In 77 healthy women ranging in age from 60 to 92 years (x=71.8 years) and 62 healthy men ranging in age from 60 to 86 years (x=71.5 years) the bone mineral density (BMD of the proximal femur end and the body composition parameters absolute fat mass, relative fat mass, lean body mass and bone mineral content were estimated by dual energy X-ray absorptiometry. Additionally, the weight status (body mass index, BMI) and the FDI were calculated. The bone density of the proximal femur end was correlated with the absolute fat mass and the lean body mass as well as with the BMI and the FDI. RESULTS: BMD correlated in females significantly positively with parameters of body composition, in males no significant correlations between fat mass (absolute and relative) and BMD as well as BMD/stature was found. Furthermore, it was shown that the weight status (BMI; r(2)=0.13, P<0.0003 in males and r(2)=0.27, P<0.000 in females), and the lean body mass (r(2)=0.21, P<0.001 in males, r(2)=0.36, P<0.004 in females) were associated significantly positively with the BMD of the proximal femur end in both sexes. The absolute fat mass had a significant impact on BMD in the female subsample only (r(2)=0.24, P<0.000). CONCLUSIONS: A lower weight status and a low amount of lean body mass, indicating not only lack of biomechanical forces of the proximal femur end, but also a lack of physical activity can be assumed to be associated increased bone loss and the development of osteoporosis in both sexes. An association between low amount of fat tissue and decreased BMD was especially found in women and may be due to the reduced conversion rates from androgens to estrogens in a low amount of fat tissue.

Absorptiometry, Photon↗