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PubMed2003

Does sexual dimorphism in human faces signal health?

Evolutionary psychologists suggest that a preference for sexually dimorphic traits in human faces is an adaptation for mate choice, because such traits reflect health during development. For male faces, this claim rests on the immunocompetence-handicap hypothesis, which states that the increased testosterone levels needed to develop large masculine traits stress the immune system. We examined whether masculine traits in adolescent male faces are associated with health during development, and also whether feminine traits in adolescent female faces signal health. Feminine traits are attractive, but it is less clear whether they should signal health. Rated masculinity in adolescent male faces correlated modestly with actual health, and was perceived as healthy, but not as attractive. Rated femininity in adolescent female faces did not correlate with actual health, although it was perceived as healthy and attractive. These results support the immunocompetence-handicap hypothesis for male faces in that masculine traits signalled health during adolescence. However, they suggest that any health-related evolutionary benefits obtained from preferences for attractive facial traits may be weak.

Facial Expression↗

PubMed2004

The relationship between sexual dimorphism in human faces and fluctuating asymmetry.

Previous studies have found both support and lack of support for a positive relationship between masculinity and symmetry, two putative signs of mate quality, in male faces. We re-examined this relationship using an explicit measure of facial fluctuating asymmetry, as well as other measures of asymmetry, and measures of facial masculinity/femininity. We also used ratings of these traits for faces. Further, we examined the relationship between facial sexual dimorphism and body asymmetry. We found no significant correlations between facial masculinity and any of our measures of asymmetry or ratings of symmetry in males. Facial femininity was not consistently associated with facial symmetry in females, but was associated with body symmetry. Therefore, for females, but not males, facial femininity and body symmetry may reflect similar aspects of mate quality. We also examined the relationships between trait ratings and measurements. Our results provide validation of our ability to measure aspects of asymmetry that are perceived to be symmetrical, and aspects of sexual dimorphism that are perceived as feminine in females and masculine in males.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2004

Concordant preferences for opposite-sex signals? Human pheromones and facial characteristics.

We have investigated whether preferences for masculine and feminine characteristics are correlated across two modalities, olfaction and vision. In study 1, subjects rated the pleasantness of putative male (4,16-androstadien-3-one; 5alpha-androst-16-en-3-one) and female (1,3,5 (10),16-estratetraen-3-ol) pheromones, and chose the most attractive face shape from a masculine-feminine continuum for a long- and a short-term relationship. Study 2 replicated study 1 and further explored the effects of relationship context on pheromone ratings. For long-term relationships, women's preferences for masculine face shapes correlated with ratings of 4,16-androstadien-3-one and men's preferences for feminine face shapes correlated with ratings of 1,3,5(10),16-estratetraen-3-ol. These studies link sex-specific preferences for putative human sex pheromones and sexually dimorphic facial characteristics. Our findings suggest that putative sex pheromones and sexually dimorphic facial characteristics convey common information about the quality of potential mates.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2006

Facial appearance is a cue to oestrogen levels in women.

Although many accounts of facial attractiveness propose that femininity in women's faces indicates high levels of oestrogen, there is little empirical evidence in support of this assumption. Here, we used assays for urinary metabolites of oestrogen (oestrone-3-glucuronide, E1G) and progesterone (pregnanediol-3-glucuronide, P3G) to investigate the relationship between circulating gonadal hormones and ratings of the femininity, attractiveness and apparent health of women's faces. Positive correlations were observed between late follicular oestrogen and ratings of femininity, attractiveness and health. Positive correlations of luteal progesterone and health and attractiveness ratings were marginally significant. Ratings of facial attributions did not relate to hormone levels for women wearing make-up when photographed. There was no effect of sex of rater on the relationships between oestrogen and ratings of facial appearance. These findings demonstrate that female facial appearance holds detectable cues to reproductive health that are considered attractive by other people.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2000

Androgyny and creativity: a study of the relationship between a balanced sex-role and creative functioning.

The relationship between creativity and androgyny was studied in 163 women and men with the Creative Functioning Test (CFT) and the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI). A 2 (femininity: high/low) x 2 (masculinity: high/low) x 2 (sex) ANOVA was conducted on subjects' CFT scores. A significant interaction effect between femininity and masculinity was found showing that subjects high on both femininity and masculinity (androgynous) and low on both scales (undifferentiated) reached higher CFT scores than female-typed and male-typed subjects. Further, a significant three-way interaction including sex of subject indicated that the former two-way interaction was accounted for by men only.

Adult↗

PubMed1990

The experience of dysmenorrhea and its relationship to personality variables.

The aims of this study were: to relate women's subjective experience of primary dysmenorrhea to psychogenic needs assessed longitudinally at the age of 15 and at the age of 25 in a nonclinical sample; to compare the psychogenic needs of women with severe primary dysmenorrhea with those of other women who never have experienced dysmenorrhea; and to examine whether women with severe dysmenorrhea were less conventionally feminine than women who never have experienced dysmenorrhea. At 25 years, 42% of the women experienced dysmenorrhea and 15% experienced pain that limited their daily activity. Differences in psychogenic needs according to the Cesarec Marke Personality Schedule and in psychological masculinity and femininity according to the Attitude Interest Schedule were found in women with severe primary dysmenorrhea compared with women who never experienced dysmenorrhea. The results indicate that women with severe dysmenorrhea have less self-esteem at 15 years, but compensate for this at 25 years by being more achievement-oriented and aggressive than women who never experienced dysmenorrhea. Further, women with severe dysmenorrhea are more conventionally feminine than women who never have experienced dysmenorrhea.

Adaptation, Psychological↗

PubMed1998

The implications for academic attainment of perceived gender-appropriateness upon spatial task performance.

BACKGROUND: Male superiority in spatial ability has traditionally been used as an explanation for the male domination of 'spatial' disciplines such as mathematics, science and computing. Data are presented which show the degree of male domination of these disciplines at a range of academic levels. AIMS: To evaluate the effect of describing a spatial ability test either as a measure of spatial ability (traditional format) or as a measure of empathy, upon male and female performance. Psychological gender is also assessed to evaluate the role of masculinity and femininity upon performance. METHOD: Eighty-four sixth form students were presented with the Group Embedded Figures Test in the assessment's traditional format and as a measure of 'empathy'. Levels of masculinity and femininity were also assessed using the Bem Sex Role Inventory. RESULTS: Whilst the description of the nature of the assessment did not affect male performance, female performance' varied significantly as a function of test description. Females only underperformed when the test was described as a measure of spatial ability. Additionally, those high in masculinity were found to outperform those high in femininity. CONCLUSIONS: The results suggest that 'apparent' sex differences in spatial ability are more accurately described as psychological gender differences which determine the motivation to attempt the assessments. COMMENT: The implications for genderised activities (such as computing) within education are discussed.

Achievement↗

PubMed1982

Hysteria and women.

Through the ages, hysteria has been considered to be a female disease. The author explores the historical record and concludes that the hysterical (histrionic) personality is a caricature of femininity. It develops under the influence of cultural forces, particularly male domination, and is not a natural attribute of women. He then inquires whether the concept of a distinct femininity is itself a stereotype or is based on inborn personality differences between the sexes. Citing current biological and ethological evidence, he favors the latter explanation. He suggests that the hypothesis of sex role distortion include not only the equation femininity-caricature-hysterical personality but also the cognate one, masculinity-caricature-"machoism."

Androgens↗

PubMed1978

Boyhood gender aberrations: treatment issues.

Although it is not yet clear what boyhood behaviors indicate an adult homosexual outcome, femininity is one reliable marker. The earlier and greater the femininity, the more likely will it be resistant to treatment, in childhood or adult life. Once an evaluation has revealed the femininity is intense, treatment should quickly begin and, when possible, include both mother and father. If the boy is to become more masculine, his mother will have to allow--encourage--him finally to separate from her, and his father will have to start serving as an adequate model for masculinity.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1998

Cloacal anxiety in female development.

Contemporary psychoanalytic theory about feminine genital anxieties has shifted our focus away from some essential developmental realities of the little girl prior to the oedipal phase. Anal phase experience has recently been reemphasized as contributing significantly to the girl's developing body image, her mastery modes, and her psychological experience of gender. This paper proposes that associated with this phase is a specific anxiety described as the girl's fear that her genital is dirty, messy, and repellent to the love object, and that her sexuality is out of control and dangerously explosive. This is an important anxiety for the girl, a specific feminine version of anxiety around loss of love and approval. It derives from her bodily experience and is typically incorporated into the feminine genital anxieties of the oedipal period.

Adult↗

PubMed1987

Effects of children on parental sex-role orientation.

The predominant theories of gender-role development have focused primarily on childhood; socialization processes for gender roles are explained from birth through adolescence. The assumption appears to be that gender roles are developed in childhood and implemented, basically unchanged, in adulthood. There is evidence, however, that gender-role self-perceptions change in adulthood. This study investigates the effects of sex of children on parental sex-role orientation. More specifically, an attempt is made to determine if the presence of sons affects sex-role self-concept of parents more than the presence of daughters. The Bem Sex Role Inventory was administered to 153 parental dyads who had daughters only (n=41), sons only (n=41), or an equal number of both sons and daughters (n=71). Sex of child, especially sons, did appear to have an effect on parents' femininity. Fathers with sons have lower femininity scores than fathers with daughters only, and mothers with sons have higher femininity scores than mothers with daughters only.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1995

Medical and nursing ethics: never the twain?

Since the publication of Carol Gilligan's In a different voice in 1982, there has been much discussion about masculine and feminine approaches to ethics. It has been suggested that an ethics of care, or a feminine ethics, is more appropriate for nursing practice, which contrasts with the 'traditional, masculine' ethics of medicine. It has been suggested that Nel Noddings' version of an 'ethics of care' (or feminine ethics) is an appropriate model for nursing ethics. The 'four principles' approach has become a popular model for medical or health care ethics. It will be suggested in this article that, whilst Noddings presents an interesting analysis of caring and the caring relationship, this has limitations. Rather than acting as an alternative to the 'four principles' approach, the latter is necessary to provide a framework to structure thinking and decision-making in health care. Further, it will be suggested that ethical separatism (that is, one ethics for nurses and one for doctors) in health care is not a progressive step for nurses or doctors. Three recommendations are made: that we promote a health care ethics that incorporates what is valuable in a 'traditional, masculine ethics', the why (four principles approach) and an 'ethics of care', the 'how' (aspects of Noddings' work and that of Urban Walker); that we encourage nurses and doctors to participate in the 'shared learning' and discussion of ethics; and that our ethical language and concerns are common to all, not split into unhelpful dichotomies.

Beneficence↗

PubMed1978

Two clinically discrete syndromes of transsexualism.

Transsexuals are defined as subjects who have a sustained feminine gender identity combined with a wish to alter their bodily appearance towards the feminine. The results of this study indicate that they can be differentiated into two clinically discrete groups. In an investigation of 29 transsexuals who sought a change of sex operation it was found that those who had experienced fetishistic arousal were significantly more likely to be older, to have experienced heterosexual intercourse, to be married and to show penile responses to pictures of men and women indicative of a more heterosexual orientation. They had less experience of homosexual contact to orgasm as compared transsexuals who had not experiennced fetishistic arousal , but this difference was not statistically significant. Frequency of cross-dressing, strenght of feminine gender identity and intensity of desire for a sex change operation did not discriminate the two groups. The fact that desire for a sex change operation may be associated with experience of fetishistic arousal could be one reason for the higher incidence transsexualism in men than in women.

Adult↗

PubMed2003

Mom, dad, I'm straight: the coming out of gender ideologies in adolescent sexual-identity development.

Little attention has been given to how femininity and masculinity ideologies impact sexual-identity development. Differentiating violations of conventional femininity and masculinity ideologies as part of an overt process of sexual-identity development in sexual-minority adolescents suggested the possibility of a parallel process among heterosexual adolescents. Based on feminist theory and analysis of heterosexual adolescents narratives about relationships, the importance of negotiating femininity and masculinity ideologies as part of sexual-identity development for all adolescents is described.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2002

Effects of perinatal exposure to PCBs and dioxins on play behavior in Dutch children at school age.

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and dioxins are known as neurotoxic compounds that may modulate sex steroid hormones. Steroid hormones play a mediating role in brain development and may influence behaviors that show sex differences, such as childhood play behavior. In this study we evaluated the effects of perinatal exposure to environmental levels of PCBs and dioxins on childhood play behavior and whether the effects showed sex differences. As part of the follow-up to the Dutch PCB/dioxin study at school age, we used the Pre-School Activity Inventory (PSAI) to assess play behavior in the Rotterdam cohort (n = 207). The PSAI assesses masculine or feminine play behavior scored on three subscales: masculine, feminine, and composite. Prenatal exposure to PCBs was defined as the sum of PCB 118, 138, 153, and 180 in maternal and cord plasma and breast milk. For breast milk we measured additional PCBs as well as 17 dioxins. Respondents returned 160 questionnaires (age 7.5 years +/- 0.4). Effects of prenatal exposure to PCBs, measured in maternal and cord plasma, on the masculine and composite scales were different for boys and girls (p <.05). In boys, higher prenatal PCB levels were related with less masculinized play, assessed by the masculine scale (p(maternal) =.042; p(cord) =.001) and composite scale (p(cord) =.011), whereas in girls higher PCB levels were associated with more masculinized play, assessed by the composite scale (p(PCBmilk) =.028). Higher prenatal dioxin levels were associated with more feminized play in boys as well as girls, assessed by the feminine scale (p =.048). These effects suggest prenatal steroid hormone imbalances caused by prenatal exposure to environmental levels of PCBs, dioxins, and other related organochlorine compounds.

Adult↗

PubMed1983

A comparison among three measures of social sex-role.

This study compared the De Cecco-Shively Social Sex-Role Inventory (DSI) with the Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI) and the Personal Attributes Questionnaire (PAQ). The analysis, comparing methods of femininity and masculinity trait description, assessment, and scoring procedures among the instruments, was obtained by administering the three inventories to a sample of seventy-nine respondents. Femininity and masculinity scores in each inventory were then classified by assigning these scores to appropriate quadrants according to median splits. Additionally, Pearson product-moment correlations were calculated in order to compare the overall femininity and masculinity scores among each of the three measures. The BSRI and PAQ were found to be in somewhat closer agreement with each other than with the DSI. The DSI provides for measurement of a greater spectrum of types of variables, and also allows more flexibility regarding personal and situational factors associated with assessment of social sex-role.

Adult↗

PubMed2004

Chicks with dicks, men in dresses: what it means to be a drag queen.

One of the burning questions about drag queens among both scholars and audiences is whether they are more gender-revolutionaries than gender-conservatives. Do they primarily destabilize gender and sexual categories by making visible the social basis of femininity and masculinity, heterosexuality and homosexuality? Or are they more apt to reinforce the dominant binary and hierarchical gender and sexual systems by appropriating gender displays and expressing sexual desires associated with traditional femininity and institutionalized heterosexuality? We address this question through a case study of drag queens at the 801 Cabaret in Key West, Florida. On the basis of life histories, observations of their performances, and focus groups with audience members, we examine the role of gender and sexuality in the process of becoming a drag queen and in the personal identities of drag queens. We find that transgenderism, same-sex sexuality, and theatrical performance are central to the personal identities of these drag queens, who use drag to forge personal and collective identities that are neither masculine nor feminine, but rather their own complex genders.

Clothing↗

PubMed2003

Thinking about gender types: cognitive organization of female and male types.

We examined the content and dimensional structure of a large and representative sample of gender types. In Study 1, using an open-ended procedure, participants generated 306 different labels for female types (e.g. housewife, feminist, femme fatale, secretary, slob) and 310 for male types (e.g. workaholic, family man, sissy, womanizer, labourer). In Study 2A, a multidimensional configuration of 229 of these male and female types was derived from a free sorting task among a new set of participants. In Study 2B, a subset of types was judged on several dimensions of meaning, which were then fitted into the configuration of types. The most important dimensions in describing the structure of gender types were: young-old, masculine-feminine and traditional-modern. The masculine-feminine dimension showed that the male and female types were largely separated from each other; within each gender category, the types were ordered by their position on the masculine-feminine dimension. Several other aspects of current thinking about men and women are discussed.

Adult↗