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PubMedDate not supplied

[Synapses identifiable in the parietal ganglia of the snail Helix lucorum].

The synaptic plasticity is a background for learning and memory. Identifiable synapses that are the synapses between individually identifiable neurons are a very convenient model for studying plasticity. Synapses between the interoceptive mechanosensory neurons and the command neurons of the withdrawal behavior were identified in the Helix lucorum brain. It was shown that synaptic plasticity estimated by the dynamics of the elementary postsynaptic potentials elicited by single presynaptic spikes differed from the synaptic plasticity estimated by the dynamics of compound synaptic responses of the same neurons to sensory stimulation. Habituation and heterosynaptic facilitation phenomena are discussed in terms of the dynamics of the elementary postsynaptic potentials.

Animals↗

PubMed1991

Measures of stimulus generalization in drug discrimination experiments.

Different approaches to measuring stimulus generalization in drug discrimination experiments are compared. The main issue, with implications for interpreting partial generalization, has been whether it is preferable to use graded or quantal indices. The first step is to determine whether discriminative drug effects are inherently quantal or graded; it would be pointless to attempt to assess a quantal phenomenon with a graded index. Evidence is reviewed suggesting that behavioural variables, and possibly pharmacological variables as well, determine the nature of the effects. Certain experiments used to evaluate the nature of generalization with exteroceptive stimuli have yet to be applied to the interoceptive stimuli that drugs produce. However, like many other attributes of drug action, discriminative stimulus effects are not immutable in nature, but are malleable and influenced by variables such as the schedule of reinforcement. There appears to be a potential for selecting procedures that generate graded responding in order to maximise precision. This ideal situation has yet to be fully realised in practice since the optimal conditions for generating graded responding remain to be identified, and present indices, based on percentage scores, do not generate interval scales of measurement. Until these issues are resolved, there is no case for maintaining that measurements of discriminative drug effects should with advantage be always quantal or always graded; either approach is compatible with research of high quality and can generate valid results and conclusions.

Journal Article↗

PubMed1991

Discriminative stimulus effects of amphetamine and pentobarbitone separately and as mixtures in rats.

The discriminative effect of a mixture of (+)-amphetamine plus pentobarbitone was investigated to characterize behavioural control by a compound interoceptive stimulus. A two-bar drug discrimination procedure with food reinforcement was used. The role of training dose was assessed by keeping the dose of (+)-amphetamine constant at 0.4mg/kg (SC) and progressively increasing that of pentobarbitone from 5mg/kg to 20mg/kg (SC). Initially stimulus control was attributable to (+)-amphetamine but as the dose of pentobarbitone was increased, stimulus control switched entirely to pentobarbitone. The reduced response to (+)-amphetamine after training in compound with the larger doses of pentobarbitone was attributed to overshadowing of a relatively weak (+)-amphetamine stimulus by a more salient pentobarbital stimulus. There was partial generalization when either component drug was given at the same dose as in the mixture, and almost complete generalization at larger doses of each component; in contrast, there was little cross-generalization between (+)-amphetamine and pentobarbitone in rats trained with either drug alone. The findings suggested that components of the compound stimulus were perceived and processed separately rather than being blended into a new and distinct stimulus. Tests for generalization to quipazine, phencyclidine or morphine suggested that the compound stimulus produced by the mixture was no less specific than the stimuli produced by each of the component drugs. Rules governing discrimination of the abused mixture of (+)-amphetamine plus pentobarbitone appeared generally similar to those found in previous studies with non-abused mixtures of nicotine and midazolam.

Journal Article↗

PubMed1991

Cue dimensionality in the three-choice pentylenetetrazole-saline-chlordiazepoxide discrimination task.

Sprague-Dawley rats were trained in a three-choice drug discrimination task utilizing 5mg/kg chlordiazepoxide (CDP), saline (SAL), and 15mg/kg pentylenetetrazole (PTZ) as stimulus conditions. Generalization tests of the three training conditions resulted in exclusively injection-appropriate lever selection. Cross-generalization tests with PTZ or CDP resulted in dose-dependent lever selections confined to the training drug and SAL levers. Morphine and ethanol cross-generalization tests produced saline-appropriate responding, whereas cocaine and caffeine produced PTZ-appropriate responding at high doses. Tests conducted after concomitant administration of both training drugs demonstrated a reciprocal antagonism between the two drugs. More importantly, when the training dose of CDP was held constant and combined with increasing doses of PTZ, a shift from CDP- to PTZ-appropriate responding through a dose range of exclusive SAL-appropriate responding was demonstrated. Overt behavioral indices of seizure activity occurred at dose combinations that engendered only saline responding, but PTZ-appropriate responding did not correspond with the development of overt seizure episodes. These data suggest that the PTZ discriminative cue in the present three-choice paradigm is not primarily linked to its proconvulsant effects. The data are discussed in terms of an hypothesis in which the discriminable interoceptive cues for PTZ and CDP lie at opposite ends of a single continuum that has a neutral centroid, and this continuum more likely reflects an anxiolysis-anxiogenesis dimension than an anticonvulsant-seizure dimension.

Journal Article↗

PubMed1992

Discriminative stimulus effects of alprazolam and diazepam: generalization to benzodiazepines, antidepressants and buspirone.

Rats in one group were trained to discriminate alprazolam (1.0mg/kg, i.p.) and in another group diazepam (3.0mg/kg, i.p.) from saline in a two-lever drug discrimination procedure. Food presentation occurred after 10 consecutive responses on the lever associated either with the training drug or with saline. Alprazolam, diazepam, lorazepam and chlor diazepoxide increased responding on the drug-associated lever in a comparable dose-related manner in both groups of rats: the relative order of potency was lorazepam >/= alprazolam > diazepam >/= chlordiazepoxide. Flumazenil (10.0mg/kg, i.p.) attenuated the effects of the training drugs. A range of doses of buspirone and four drugs having antidepressant properties (amitriptyline, fluoxetine, cericlamine, imipramine) then were studied in both groups of rats. All five drugs caused approximately 40% increases (group mean) in drug-appropriate responding in alprazolam-trained rats whereas only amitriptyline partially substituted for diazepam. The results indicate that alprazolam has interoceptive stimulus effects that overlap with the stimulus effects of diazepam, yet the effects of alprazolam may not be identical to those of diazepam because the antidepressant drugs and buspirone substituted partially for alprazolam but generally not for diazepam.

Journal Article↗

PubMed1993

Overshadowing of nicotine discrimination in rats: a model for behavioural mechanisms of drug interactions?

Overshadowing can play an important role in conditioning with compound exteroceptive stimuli. Drug discrimination experiments have been carried out to examine overshadowing when mixtures of drugs serve as compound interoceptive stimuli. Three groups of rats were trained in a two-bar operant procedure with a tandem schedule of food reinforcement (n = 8). All rats were trained to discriminate (-)-nicotine (0.32mg/kg s.c.) from saline, but in two groups of animals midazolam (0.1 or 0.2mg/kg s.c.) was co-administered with the nicotine to generate a compound stimulus. Dose-response curves were determined with nicotine and midazolam in each group. In rats trained with nicotine alone, there was a steep dose-response curve for the discriminative stimulus effect of nicotine. The presence of the smaller dose of midazolam in the training stimulus clearly attenuated, and the larger dose prevented, the appearance of the discriminative effect of nicotine, whereas there was a concomitant increase in the discriminative response to midazolam. These results suggest that midazolam overshadowed the response to nicotine in a dose-related manner. In rats trained with nicotine alone, the same doses of midazolam had no effect on the discriminative response established to the nicotine stimulus, indicating the absence of pharmacological antagonism. The results illustrate how conditioning factors may provide a behavioural mechanism for interactions between abused drugs.

Journal Article↗

PubMed1996

Impact of training history on discrimination of a drug mixture by rats.

The impact of training sequence on discrimination of a mixture of two drugs was investigated with five groups of rats (n = 10). In phase I, two groups were trained according to conventional two-lever, operant drug discrimination protocols with food reinforcement; one of these groups was trained with nicotine (0.4mg/kg) and the other group was trained with midazolam (0.15mg/kg). The three remaining groups served as controls and were subjected to 'sham' training in which administrations of saline, nicotine or midazolam were unrelated to contingencies of reinforcement. After completion of phase I (40 sessions), all five groups were trained to discriminate a mixture of nicotine (0.4mg/kg) plus midazolam (0.15mg/kg) from saline (phase II). Any differences between the groups in their performance during phase II could, therefore, be attributed to their different histories in phase I. During phase II, all groups discriminated the mixture from saline with similar accuracy (89-94% drug-appropriate responding after mixture as compared with 2-7% after saline). In the three groups of rats subjected to 'sham' training in phase I, there was partial generalization to both nicotine (45-53%) and midazolam (39-40%), each of which therefore contributed about equally to stimulus control by the mixture. In rats that were initially trained to discriminate nicotine, midazolam had acquired little stimulus control over behaviour (9%) and discrimination of the mixture was attributable largely to the nicotine (87%). Conversely, in rats that were initially trained to discriminate midazolam, nicotine contributed 3% and midazolam 76% to stimulus control by the mixture. These powerful, persistent effects of training sequence were interpreted as examples of associative blocking demonstrated with the interoceptive stimuli produced by psychoactive drugs.

Journal Article↗

PubMed1996

The effects of opioid receptor antagonism on the discriminative stimulus effects of cocaine and d-amphetamine in the rat.

There is evidence that suggests that endogenous opioids can modulate brain dopamine systems and the behavioral effects of drugs that are mediated by those systems. The aim of this study was to examine the role of endogenous opioids in the discriminative stimulus effects of d-amphetamine and cocaine, through the use of receptor antagonists. Two separate groups of rats were trained to discriminate 1.0mg/kg d-amphetamine or 10mg/kg cocaine from saline, in a discrete-trial, avoidance/escape procedure. Dose-response curves for d-amphetamine (0.1-1.0mg/kg, i.p.) and cocaine (1.0-10mg/kg, i.p.) were generated (using a cumulative dosing regimen) in the absence and presence of: the nonselective opioid antagonist naloxone (1.0 and 5.0mg/kg, s.c.), the delta-opioid antagonist naltrindole (10 and 30µg, i.c.; 1mg/kg, i.p.), the mu-opioid antagonist beta-funaltrexamine (30µg, i.c.), and the kappa-opioid antagonist nor-binaltorphimine (norBNI) (10 and 30µg, i.c.). The ED(50)s for d-amphetamine and cocaine alone were 0.2mg/kg (0.16-0.33) and 3.9mg/kg (2.7-5.1), respectively. None of the opioid antagonists produced significant changes in the ED(50) for d-amphetamine. NorBNI significantly increased the potency of cocaine to produce a discriminative stimulus (ED(50) 2.2mg/kg; 1.7-2.6), whereas the other antagonists were without effect. Endogenous mu- and delta-opioids do not appear to be involved in mediating the discriminative stimulus effects of d-amphetamine or cocaine; however, the endogenous kappa-opioids might have a negative modulatory effect on cocaine's interoceptive cue. The lack of effect of norBNI on the discriminative stimulus effects of d-amphetamine suggests novel differences in the mechanisms of action of d-amphetamine and cocaine.

Journal Article↗

PubMed2001

Self-administration cues as signals: drug self-administration and tolerance.

There is evidence that drug-associated exteroceptive cues elicit compensatory conditional responses (CCRs) that contribute to tolerance. The authors evaluated whether interoceptive, self-administration cues (SACs) similarly contribute to tolerance. In Experiments 1 and 2, the ataxic effect of ethanol was measured in rats that self-administered (SA) ethanol--by either oral consumption or intragastric infusion--and in rats that were yoked (Y) to these self-administrators. In both experiments, the ataxic effect of ethanol was more pronounced in Y than in SA rats. In addition, SA rats failed to display usual levels of tolerance when ethanol was administered in the absence of SACs and displayed a CCR of hypertaxia in response to SACs not followed by ethanol. The results of Experiment 3 indicate that the ataxic effect of intravenous heroin also was greater in Y than in SA rats. The findings suggest that SACs contribute to drug tolerance.

Animals↗

PubMed2000

Effects of gymnastics expertise on the perception of body orientation in the pitch dimension.

The purpose of this study was to investigate how experts in motor skills requiring a fine postural control perceive their body orientation with few gravity based sensory cues. In Experiment 1, expert gymnasts and controls had to detect their body tilt when pitching at a velocity of 0.05 deg.s(-1), in two conditions of body restriction (strapped and body cast altering the somatosensory cues). Contrary to the experts, the controls exhibited a larger body tilt when totally restrained in the body cast. In Experiment 2, subjects had to estimate their Subjective Postural Vertical (SPV) starting from different angles of pitch tilt. The controls exhibited significant errors of SPV judgement whereas the experts were very precise. These results suggest that 1) somatosensory cues are more informative than otolithic cues for the perception of body orientation, and 2) the efficiency of otolithic and/or interoceptive inputs can be improved through a specific training to compensate for the lack of somatosensory cues.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1975

Effects of neophobia and habituation on the poison-induced avoidance of exteroceptive stimuli in the rat.

Two experiments on the role of neophobia in poison-induced aversions to exteroceptive stimuli are reported. In Experiment 1, rats were given either 10 or 25 days of habituation to the test situation prior to conditioning. Those animals with the longer habituation period avoided a complex of novel exteroceptive stimuli while those with the shorter habituation period did not. In Experiment 2 rats initially avoided the more novel of two containers, but gradually came to eat equal amounts from both. A single pairing of toxicosis with consumption from either the novel or the familiar container reinstated the avoidance of the novel container in both cases. The results were discussed in terms of an interaction between habituation and conditioning procedures. It was suggested that previously reported differences between interoceptive and exteroceptive conditioning effects may have been influenced by the differential novelty of the two classes of stimuli in the test situation. It was further suggested that non-contingently poisoned control groups should routinely be included in poison avoidance conditioning studies.

Animals↗

PubMedDate not supplied

[Complex perception of stimuli during conditioning].

The review concerns the effects of a variety of stimuli on the reproduction of conditioned reflexes. By the literature data, during conditioning of any type, besides the single stimulus intentionally applied by an experimenter as a conditioned one, an animal perceives the whole complex of stimuli (acoustic, visual, olfactory, algesic, and other exteroceptive, proprioceptive, and interoceptive stimuli), including those of the environment and time of the day during training. Many of these stimuli are essential for the reproduction of the acquired habit. The complex of stimuli that act on an animal during the reproduction should in all parameters correspond to that perceived by the animal during training. If the complexes differ at least in one stimulus, the reproduction of the reflex may fail.

Animals↗

PubMed2001

Mouse strain differences in opiate reward learning are explained by differences in anxiety, not reward or learning.

Gene-targeting techniques to produce null mutations provide a powerful method for evaluating the contribution of particular candidate genes involved in motivation. The embryonic stem cell lines in which homologous recombination is undertaken are derived from 129 mice, but because of the impoverished performance of 129 mice on a number of behavioral tasks, mice chimeric for the mutation are often bred with a C57BL/6 mouse strain. Thus, an examination of both parental strains is important in the study of the knock-out mice. Although the C57BL/6 behavioral phenotype is well documented, details of the 129 phenotype have not been the focus of study until recently. We investigated opiate motivation in both 129/SvJ and C57BL/6J mouse strains to determine whether, and under what circumstances, the 129/SvJ mouse exhibited motivated behavior toward opiates. 129/SvJ mice required both drug and contextual cues to demonstrate morphine conditioned place preferences on test day, whereas C57BL/6J mice required only contextual cues to express opiate place conditioning. Pentobarbital and diazepam but not saline, cocaine, or naloxone could substitute for morphine on test day in 129/SvJ mice, demonstrating that morphine indeed has rewarding motivational valence in the 129/SvJ mouse strain. This critical, interoceptive cue in 129/SvJ mice on test day may be the anxiolytic properties of the effective drugs. Therefore, some deficits observed in 129 mice and mice harboring this genetic background may be attributed to high levels of anxiety during the retrieval period rather than to sensory, learning, or motivational deficits.

Animals↗

PubMed2002

Intraadministration associations: conditional hyperalgesia elicited by morphine onset cues.

There is evidence that exteroceptive cues associated with drug administration elicit conditional compensatory responding (e.g., hyperalgesia in organisms with a history of morphine administration). Recently it has become apparent that, within each administration, interoceptive early-drug onset cues (DOCs) may become associated with the later, larger drug effect (intraadministration associations). The present experiments evaluated DOC-elicited conditional hyperalgesia in rats intravenously infused with morphine. The results indicated that DOC-elicited hyperalgesia contributes to tolerance to the analgesic effect of morphine, and such DOC-elicited hyperalgesia is an associative phenomenon, rather than a sensitized response to the opiate. The findings suggest that associative analyses of tolerance should acknowledge the conditional responding elicited by DOCs, and extinction-based addiction treatments should incorporate extinction of DOC-elicited conditional responding.

Analgesics, Opioid↗

PubMed1975

Transformations of consciousness. A cartography. I. The perception-hallucination continuum.

Self-awareness emerges from the evolutionary transformation of material structures into magical, mythical and mental structures of consciousness. Western varieties of conscious states may be mapped on a perception-hallucination continuum of increasing ergotropic or hyper-arousal. These levels of subcortical arousal are cortically or cognitively interpreted as normal, creative, hyperhrenic, cataleptic and ecstatic states. During increasing hyper-arousal (characterized by EEG desynchronization): (1) the variability of the EEG amplitude decreases in introverts whereas in extroverts, it increases; (2) exteroception is transformed into an experience of interoception, while willed motor activity becomes increasingly impaired and ultimately inhibited, and (3) information processing during these hallucinatory states is preferentially shifted from the speech dominant and motor-coordinating or "major" toward the nonverbal, gestalt-perceiving, the non-dominant or "minor" cortical hemisphere.

Amnesia↗

PubMedDate not supplied

[Eating disorders among Spanish university students].

OBJECTIVE: This present work assesses the prevalence of anorexia nervosa, its partial syndromes, bulimia nervosa and binge eating in a university sample of Galician students (Spain). METHOD: The sample is made up of 298 women and 157 men. The scales used were: Eating Disorders Inventory (EDI) and a Questionnaire on eating behavior. RESULTS: Women had higher scores in drive for thinness, bulimia, interoceptive awareness, body dissatisfaction and ineffectiveness than men; furthermore the women had lower scores in BMI. We find a very high prevalence, a total of 6.4% of cases of eating disorders. CONCLUSIONS: The high values of probable eating disorders make it especially necessary to carry out primary and secondary prevention programs in university students populations.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1992

Multimodal and motor influences on orientation: implications for adapting to weightless and virtual environments.

Human sensory-motor control and orientation involve the correlation of sensory information from many modalities with motor information about ongoing patterns of voluntary and reflexive activation of the body musculature. The vestibular system represents only one of the acceleration-sensitive receptor systems of the body conveying spatial information. Touch- and pressure-dependent receptors, somatosensory and interoceptive, as well as proprioceptive receptors contribute, along with visual and auditory signals specifying relative motion between self and surround. Control of body movement and orientation is dynamically adapted to the 1G force background of Earth. Exposure to non-1G environments such as in space travel produces a variety of sensory-motor disturbances, and often motion sickness, until adaptation is achieved. Exposure to virtual environments in which body movements are not accompanied by normal patterns of inertial and sensory feedback can also lead to control errors and elicit motion sickness.

Adaptation, Physiological↗

PubMed1992

Relaxation as an altered state of consciousness: a rationale for a general theory of relaxation.

A general theory of relaxation is presented. It is based on an integrated model of the main states of consciousness, which enables one to differentiate "techniques for relaxing" leading to the "relaxing states" and "meditative techniques" leading to the differentiated waking states of consciousness. These latter include specific "only the relaxation response states" and the "ultraconsciousness states". Each state is described along the following dimensions: of biological rhythms, i.e., Sleep-Wakefulness and the Basic Rest-Activity Cycle; brain hemispheric activity; the threshold of the extero- and interoceptive stimuli reception; perceptual dominance of stimuli from external or internal sources; spontaneous versus goal-oriented imagination activity, i.e., passive or active state of mind; feed-back relation with the surroundings.

Arousal↗