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PubMed2001

Vicissitudes of bisexuality. Crucial points and clinical implications.

The author begins by noting that the heuristic value of the concept of bisexuality can be explored in two directions, involving respectively its role in psychopathology and in the development of creativity and thought. The author concentrates on the first of these aspects, which entails a reconsideration of the 'phallic question'. The status of femininity is investigated on the basis of Freud's and Winnicott's theories of bisexuality and the author here finds an explanation for the repudiation of femininity and for the 'phallic question' thereby implied, which represents the underlying bedrock resulting in interminable analyses. An important element in this rejection is stated to be the maternal aspect of femininity. Particular reference is made to the somatic roots of phallic defences and to their effects on thought and symbolisation. Some brief clinical examples are presented to suggest that the bedrock may be due to the distorted use of sensoriality and of the erotogenic zones. The author contends that the anal zone plays a crucial part in the manifestations of bisexuality and contrasts phallic logic with the logic of triangulation. Numerous literature references and clinical examples support and illustrate her arguments throughout. The author ends with a discussion of the implications of bisexuality for thought and knowledge.

Bisexuality↗

PubMed2002

Women in group and women's groups.

Female development is characterized by the introjection of maternal and paternal objects, which creates a rich internal world for women. However, the feminine tendency to become diffused in identifications sometimes results in women feeling overpowered in mixed-gender groups. The author advocates women's groups for the traditionally "feminine" woman, that is, the woman who has a rather impoverished sense of self in terms of her internalized objects. Women's groups are also helpful during adolescence, pregnancy, and menopause, milestones of female development. These are times when women are in profound crisis and may find it difficult to speak about these quintessentially feminine events in the presence of men.

Crisis Intervention↗

PubMed1987

Relationship between sex-role behaviors and alcohol consumption in undergraduate men and women.

The relationship between sex-typed behaviors and alcohol consumption is examined in a questionnaire study involving male and female undergraduates. A multiple regression analysis indicated that for women, feminine behavior was significantly negatively correlated with total alcohol, beer and distilled spirits consumption. Weight was positively correlated with total alcohol and wine consumption. For men, feminine behavior was negatively correlated with total alcohol, wine and beer consumption. Masculine behavior was positively correlated with total alcohol, wine and beer consumption; weight was negatively correlated with wine consumption. Except in the case of wine, sex-role variables were found to account for more of the variance in alcohol consumption than did biological gender. Feminine behavior was negatively associated with alcohol consumption for both men and women. Masculine behavior was positively associated with alcohol consumption for men.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1980

Sex role identity and self esteem in adulthood.

Sex role identity (Fem Sex Role Inventory) and self esteem (Texas Social Behavior Inventory) were examined in a cross sectional sample of 2069 Ohio State University students, employees, and alumni between the ages of seventeen and eighty-nine. Both men and women displayed peak masculinity scores in the middle years of adulthood, with no significant differences in femininity scores across the age range studied. Among both men and women, psychologically "androgynous" individuals displayed the highest levels of self esteem, followed by masculine sex-typed, feminine sex-typed, and "undifferentiated" individuals, in that order. Masculinity was a far better predictor of self esteem than was femininity.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2006

How accurately do young children and adults discriminate the gender of natural faces?

The effects of gender-relevant facial features and hairstyles on discrimination of sex of photographed men and women were examined. The stimuli were 36 photographs of natural faces: 9 masculine-males, 9 feminine-males, 9 masculine-females, and 9 feminine-females. Each of the nine faces had one of three hairstyles, hair concealed, short hair, or long hair. 33 children (M age=5:10) and 28 adults were asked to identify the sex of each stimulus. Children had difficulties with cross-gender faces and cross-gender hairstyles, such as a feminine-male face with long hair. Adults' discriminations were accurate except for masculine-female faces, while children's decisions depended both on hairstyle and internal facial features. Children's discriminations might be based both on their perceptual skill in detecting critical visual features and their knowledge of men and women.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1987

Facial action patterns, electromyography, and moods in response to an insoluble task as a function of sex and sex-role differences.

College students of either androgynous or sex-typed orientation were randomly assigned to either an insoluble concept-formation task or a solvable one. Posttreatment scores were compared for measures of dysphoric mood (Multiple Affect Adjective List), electromyographic responses (corrugator and zygomatic), and discrete facial responses (Facial Action Coding System). In Study 1, 18 androgynous women were compared to 16 feminine women; in Study 2, 16 androgynous men were compared to 16 masculine men. The insoluble task was associated with more corrugator activity (frowning) than the solvable task in both studies. Feminine women displayed more corrugator responses across both tasks than androgynous women. However, masculine men did not differ from androgynous men in over-all corrugator response activity. Androgynous women smiled more than feminine women on the facial action coding measure. Men subjected to the insoluble task reported significantly more anxiety, depression, and hostility. Masculine men scored higher on anxiety during the insoluble task than androgynous men, while the latter scored somewhat higher on anxiety in the other condition.

Adult↗

PubMed1989

Field independence as a function of sex, sex-roles, and the sex-role appropriateness of the task.

Two experiments were conducted to explain the sex difference in field independence by reference to socialization factors. It was hypothesized that the sex-role appropriateness of the task as masculine or feminine-typed would influence the performance of masculine and feminine women in a manner congruent with their sex-role orientation. 28 pilot subjects and 100 subjects in Study 2 were equally divided between the sexes. Both studies used the Bem Sex-role Inventory, but different versions of the Embedded Figures Test. The over-all results suggested that feminine women varied their performance according to task appropriateness, although not always in a manner congruent with their sex-role orientation. Androgynous individuals and masculine men did not alter their performance.

Adult↗

PubMed1996

Sex-role orientation among incarcerated women.

This study of 120 women inmates of a state prison showed that sex-role orientation was related to the type of offence committed by women but, contrary to the hypothesis about the "new" female offender, violent offenders were more traditionally feminine than financial and drug-related offenders. Drug offenders had high rates of undifferentiated ratings. Women became more traditionally masculine or feminine with length of incarceration. Women who had children were more likely to score as traditionally feminine.

Cross-Sectional Studies↗

PubMed2002

Comparisons of two groups of sex-change applicants based on the MMPI.

Out of 29 men asking for a sex-change, 16 reported clinical anamnesis criteria for transsexualism according to the DSM-III-R, a more restrictive diagnosis than the DSM-IV gender dysphoria diagnosis. In addition, all the subjects had taken an MMPI which, of course, did not contribute to the transsexualism diagnosis but which served to describe their personalities. The 16 subjects diagnosed as transsexual and the 13 who did not qualify for this diagnosis were compared on the basis of personality variables measured by the MMPI. Certain differences became evident. The transsexuals systematically complied to cultural stereotypes of femininity without any uneasiness, whereas the nontranssexuals could be subdivided into two groups, those with a vague sense of ill-being linked to a pronounced feminine identity or those with only a slight feminine identity and who showed no particular difficulties.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2005

Increasing differentiation of women and men: gender trait analysis 1974-1997.

Analysis of the responses of some 4,000 college students showed increasing differentiation in the ratings of gender characteristics of typical women and men, especially with regard to feminine traits. Roughly similar patterns were observed in five other studies using the same gender traits. All studies showed continued or increased sex typing on affectionate and sympathetic. In the present study women became more feminine, and males became less, on all but one of the feminine traits. This increasing differentiation of women and men is not consistent with predictions from the sociocultural model; they are more consistent with those of the evolutionary model.

Aggression↗

PubMed1986

Sex roles in addiction: defense or deficit?

Overly masculine, "macho" males and feminine, "seductive" females are found in clients addicted to alcohol and/or drugs. Contrary to expectations, on the Bem Sex-Role Inventory males (N = 60) rated themselves, in descending order, Undifferentiated, 38.5%; Feminine, 33%; Masculine, 17%; and Androgynous, 11.5%. Females (N = 36), more predictively, saw themselves as Feminine, 50%; Undifferentiated, 31%; Androgynous, 11%; and Masculine, 8%. Independent variables of age, income, marital status, severity of addiction, length of inpatient treatment, level of education, and parental marital status did not significantly affect the results. Extreme sex-role dress and behavior appear to be a defense against the overall damage resulting from the addictive disease rather than a contributor to or cause of the disease.

Defense Mechanisms↗

PubMed1994

Blending vigorous leadership and womanly virtues: Edith Kathleen Russell at the University of Toronto, 1920-52.

This article attempts to explore the gendered attributes of leadership. Using archival resources and interviews with former nursing faculty this article examines the leadership qualities of one woman, Edith Kathleen Russell, in one campaign, the struggle for a nursing program at the University of Toronto. The nursing program was established at the University of Toronto in 1920, a time when women's public contribution remained firmly tied to their traditional feminine qualilties. Kathleen Russell was faced with the virtually impossible task of balancing the traditional feminine qualities while practising the aggressive qualities associated with leadership and authority. Russell was successful in promoting university nursing education when she worked within the confines of gender-determined behavior. When her strong will, determination, and persistence became evident, she was silenced. The dilemma of how to blend traditional feminine characteristics with assertive leadership remains.

Canada↗

PubMed2000

Gender-related personal attributes and psychological adjustment among U.S. Army soldiers.

Personality characteristics associated with successful adaptation to military life are often described in gender-related terms. However, valid, reliable measures of gender-related personality characteristics have not been established for military populations. The purpose of this study was to validate an instrument for measuring gender-related personality characteristics in an active duty population. The Extended Personal Attributes Questionnaire was administered to 1,060 male soldiers and 305 female soldiers in U.S. Army support units. Results of a factor analysis indicated that there are three separate factors. The first denotes negatively valued aggressive traits (Negative Masculinity), the second denotes negatively valued passive traits (Negative Femininity), and the third combines positive instrumental and positive expressive traits, referred to as the Combined factor. Although positive instrumental traits (referred to as Masculinity) were related to fewer psychological symptoms, Negative Masculinity and Negative Femininity were associated with increased psychological symptoms. Positive expressive traits (referred to as Femininity) were unrelated to psychological symptoms.

Adaptation, Psychological↗

PubMed2001

Women's decision-making determinants in choosing uterine artery embolization for symptomatic fibroids.

OBJECTIVE: To determine what symptoms of leiomyomata uteri prompted women to seek uterine artery embolization (UAE) and what factors were most frequently cited in the decision making leading to choosing UAE over other treatments. STUDY DESIGN: Eighty-four consecutive women with symptomatic leiomyoma presenting for UAE completed a questionnaire that inquired about their pelvic symptoms and the issues that were important in their decision to request UAE. All subjects previously had been told that they were surgical candidates. RESULTS: Pelvic symptoms that the 84 women most frequently noted were bleeding (n = 61), anemia (41), pelvic pain (29), frequent urination (24) and pelvic pressure (21). The majority of women (78) reported significant worry about their health from the fibroids, and (72) reported that the symptoms caused daily discomfort. Although the majority of women wanted a treatment that would give permanent relief of symptoms and thought UAE would do this, other factors frequently cited in the decision making included quality-of-life reasons, such as the desire to avoid adverse effects of other treatments (76), anticipated prolonged postoperative recovery from surgery (70) and avoiding surgery (66). Many women considered the uterus an important female organ, believed that the uterus was a source of femininity (33), stated that the uterus was necessary to maintain self-image (49) and reported that the uterus was necessary to maintain sexual image (49). CONCLUSION: In this cohort of women with symptomatic leiomyomas, treatment preferences did not interfere with the current lifestyle. In addition, the uterus was considered a source of femininity and sexuality. It is not clear whether women requesting UAE differ from women requesting surgical intervention in terms of how they assess the importance of the uterus, but these data suggest that many women still consider the uterus an important aspect of their femininity and that those seeking nonsurgical options should be thoroughly counseled about uterine function and how it relates to sexuality.

Adult↗

PubMed1992

[Women: psychopathology and cultural malaise].

An account of the incidence of mental health and disease criteria in feminine psychopathology is presented as well as a consideration on the increasing medicalization and psychiatrization of women's demand for sanitary help. Symptoms should not be understood separately from the discontent relevant to the place femininity is given in society--hence women's subjective suffering. Observes Freud that, as a child bearer, a woman is more involved with sexual functions--thus placing her at the pulsional pole of culture which reduces a propitiatory space for sublimation processes. Correlatively, Freud sees women as victims of the worst social repression process: women being forbidden to think. Even though discontent, and psychic pain cannot be avoided inasmuch as civilization imposes certain restrictions necessarily, there is, however, an excess of pain related to the feminine position. No cure will be possible if women fail to restore their own place as subjects of their own desire, whose alienation is shown through symptoms.

Culture↗

PubMed2005

Peer attitudes towards adolescent participants in male- and female-oriented sports.

This study examined gender stereotypes in peer ratings of femininity and masculinity for adolescent participants in three sports. Following a preliminary study of gender stereotyping of several sports, high school students rated unfamiliar cohorts each of whom was described in a single paragraph as either a male or female dedicated participant in one of three sports. A total of 12 different descriptive paragraphs were used in a 2 (race) x 2 (sex) x 3 (sport) design. Each of these paragraphs, although short, ascribed a variety of traits that could be seen by raters as the independent variables: name (initials only), age, race, gender, hours of practice per week, number of competitions/performances per year, sport, and self-confidence. For this reason, raters were highly unlikely to surmise that sex and sport were the primary independent variables in the study. As predicted, there was a consistent decrease in rated femininity and increase in masculinity for both male and female adolescent targets as they switched from participating in a "feminine" (ballet) to a neutral (tennis) to a "masculine" (karate) sport. These results suggest that sex stereotypes for certain sports may influence who elects to participate and how participants are viewed by others.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1987

Helene Deutsch: a life in theory.

Evaluations of Helene Deutsch's work on female psychology almost invariably focus on her idealization of motherhood and on her attribution of narcissism, passivity, and masochism to the "feminine" woman. The author suggests that identification plays a more important role in Deutsch's portrayal of feminine development than has hitherto been acknowledged. Deutsch treats identification as a reparative process that enables women to overcome major traumata by allowing them to re-experience the initial bliss of the mother-child relationship. The biographical origins of Deutsch's theory of feminine development are explored, and an assessment offered of how her reliance on personal experience both enhanced and inhibited its explanatory power.

Europe↗

PubMed1984

Men and women as parents: sex role orientations, employment, and parental roles with infants.

Mothers' and fathers' sex role orientations and employment situations were examined in connection with their involvement in child-oriented activities using a longitudinal research design. During interviews that took place within 3 months of their wedding dates, 34 couples completed questionnaires that measured their sex role attitudes, masculinity-femininity, and their skills and role preferences for performing a number of child-oriented activities. Approximately 1 year later, after the couples had become parents, they were interviewed about their employment situations and again about their child-care skills and role preferences for performing certain child-care tasks. During the 2- to 3-week period following the second interview, the couples were telephoned on 9 occasions and asked to report on the household tasks, leisure activities, and child-oriented activities they had performed during the 24-hour period that preceded each call. The findings showed that mothers' sex role attitudes before their infants' births predicted their role preferences after their babies were born, and these two factors, as well as mothers' involvement in the paid labor force, were related to the extent of their involvement in child-oriented activities. Mothers' masculinity and femininity, however, were unrelated to their parenting behavior. In contrast, fathers' work involvement was related only to the extent of their leisure activities with children. In addition, fathers' role preferences for performing child-care tasks and their perceived skill at such tasks (as measured both before and after their children's births) were related to the overall extent and the nature of their involvement in child-oriented activities. Fathers' role preferences were somewhat stable from before to after children's births, and fathers' preferences before their children were born predicted the mothers' preferences afterward. Neither fathers' sex-role attitudes nor their masculinity or femininity, however, predicted their activities with infants.

Adult↗