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PubMed2004

Force-velocity relationship and stretch-shortening cycle function in sprint and endurance athletes.

This study examined the torque-velocity and power-velocity relationships of quadriceps muscle function, stretch shortening cycle function, and leg-spring stiffness in sprint and endurance athletes. Isokinetic maximal knee extension torque was obtained from 7 sprinters and 7 endurance athletes using a Con-trex isokinetic dynamometer. Torque and power measures were corrected for lean-thigh cross-sectional area and lean-thigh volume, respectively. Stretch-shortening cycle function and muscle stiffness measurements were obtained while subjects performed single-legged squat, countermovement, and drop-rebound jumps on an inclined sledge and force-plate apparatus. The results indicated that sprinters generated, on average, 0.15 +/- 0.05 N.m.cm(-2) more torque across all velocities compared with endurance athletes. Significant differences were also found in the power-velocity relationships between the 2 groups. The sprinters performed significantly better than the endurance athletes on all jumps, but there were no differences in prestretch augmentation between the groups. The average vertical leg stiffness during drop jumps was significantly higher for sprinters (5.86 N.m(-1)) compared with endurance runners (3.38 N.m(-1)). The findings reinforce the need for power training to be carried out at fast contraction speeds but also show that SSC function remains important in endurance running.

Adult↗

PubMed2003

Acute effects of plyometric exercise on maximum squat performance in male athletes.

This study examines the acute effects of plyometric exercise on 1 repetition maximum (RM) squat performance in trained male athletes. Twelve men (mean age +/- SD: 20.5 +/- 1.4 years) volunteered to participate in 3 testing sessions separated by at least 6 days of rest. During each testing session the 1RM was assessed on back squat exercise. Before all 3 trials subjects warmed up on a stationary cycle for 5 minutes and performed static stretching. Subjects then performed 5 submaximal sets of 1-8 repetitions before attempting a 1RM lift. Subjects rested for at least 4 minutes between 1RM trials. During the first testing session (T1) subjects performed a series of sets with increasing load until their 1RM was determined. During the second and third testing sessions subjects performed in counterbalanced order either 3 double-leg tuck jumps (TJ) or 2 depth jumps (DJ) 30 seconds before each 1RM attempt. The average 1RM lifts after T1 and testing sessions with TJ or DJ were 139.6 +/- 29.3 kg, 140.5 +/- 25.6 kg, and 144.5 +/- 30.2 kg, respectively (T1 < DJ; p < 0.05). These data suggest that DJ performed before 1RM testing may enhance squat performance in trained male athletes.

Adult↗

PubMed2005

The effects of progressive resistance training for children with cerebral palsy.

OBJECTIVES: To investigate the effects of progressive resistance training of quadriceps and hamstrings muscles in children with cerebral palsy (CP). DESIGN: Pilot study using a repeated measures design with measurements at baseline, immediately after six weeks training then at four-week follow-up. SETTING: The project was undertaken within the physiotherapy department of two special schools in Glasgow. SUBJECTS: A convenience sample of eight children aged between six and 12 years, with hypertonic CP. INTERVENTION: The subjects participated three times per week in a six-week, progressive, free-weight, strengthening programme. OUTCOME MEASURES: Maximum isometric muscle strength and resistance to passive stretch were measured with a hand-held myometer. The Gross Motor Function Measure and a 10-metre timed walking test, were used to assess function and gait parameters respectively. RESULTS: Muscle strength increased, with the quadriceps to hamstrings strength ratio moving towards normal. These changes were retained at follow-up. Muscle tone decreased and continued to decrease to follow-up. The standing (D) and walking, running and jumping (E) goal areas of the Gross Motor Function Measure showed improvement that continued towards follow-up. Walking speed and step rate increased. CONCLUSIONS: A future large-scale randomized controlled study would be of value to substantiate these results as the small convenience sample and lack of control group limit this study. However, the finding that no adverse effect accompanied the positive outcomes in strength and function may encourage clinicians to consider resistance training alongside standard therapeutic interventions.

Analysis of Variance↗

PubMed2004

Eccentric Training and Static Stretching Improve Hamstring Flexibility of High School Males.

OBJECTIVE: To determine if the flexibility of high-school-aged males would improve after a 6-week eccentric exercise program. In addition, the changes in hamstring flexibility that occurred after the eccentric program were compared with a 6-week program of static stretching and with a control group (no stretching). DESIGN AND SETTING: We used a test-retest control group design in a laboratory setting. Subjects were assigned randomly to 1 of 3 groups: eccentric training, static stretching, or control. SUBJECTS: A total of 69 subjects, with a mean age of 16.45 +/- 0.96 years and with limited hamstring flexibility (defined as 20 degrees loss of knee extension measured with the thigh held at 90 degrees of hip flexion) were recruited for this study. MEASUREMENTS: Hamstring flexibility was measured using the passive 90/90 test before and after the 6-week program. RESULTS: Differences were significant for test and for the test-by-group interaction. Follow-up analysis indicated significant differences between the control group (gain = 1.67 degrees ) and both the eccentric-training (gain = 12.79 degrees ) and static-stretching (gain = 12.05 degrees ) groups. No difference was found between the eccentric and static-stretching groups. CONCLUSIONS: The gains achieved in range of motion of knee extension (indicating improvement in hamstring flexibility) with eccentric training were equal to those made by statically stretching the hamstring muscles.

Journal Article↗

PubMed1999

A comparison of drop jump training methods: effects on leg extensor strength qualities and jumping performance.

The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of two drop jump (DJ) training methods on the strength qualities of the leg extensors and vertical jumping performance. Thirty-five males were allocated to either a control group or one of two training groups, required to perform 72-90 DJ per week for 6 weeks: DJ for maximum rebound height (DJ-H) or DJ for maximum height and minimum ground contact time (DJ-H/t). The subjects were tested before and after the training on leg extensor function for maximum strength and speed-strength under concentric and stretch-shortening cycle muscular actions, and on vertical jumps from a standing position and a run-up. ANOVA with repeated measures showed that a 20% gain in reactive strength (RS) for the DJ-H/t group was significantly greater (p < 0.05) than the other groups, however, this did not transfer to vertical jumping performance. The DJ-H group did not achieve a significant training effect. It was concluded that DJ-H/t method was effective for the development of RS, but training with DJ-H was not intense and/or specific enough to stimulate gains in strength qualities of the leg extensors or jumping performance.

Adult↗

PubMed1992

Nociceptive threshold and physical activity.

Previous studies using subjective tools to measure pain have shown that muscle exercise can have analgesic effects in man. The nociceptive leg flexion reflex (or RIII reflex) is a useful objective tool for assessing human pain. In this study, the pain threshold was assessed using the nociceptive flexion reflex in six high-level athletes 1) at rest in comparison with 8 control subjects and 2) after exercise requiring the production of a 200-Watt force over a period of 20 minutes. The nociceptive flexion reflex threshold at rest was found to be spontaneously higher in the athletes than in the controls. Physical activity resulted in a significant increase (+53%) in the threshold of the nociceptive reflex in the athletes. The role of stress-induced analgesia, the reduction in perceived intensity of stimuli during movement, and the release of opioids are discussed.

Adult↗

PubMed2000

Effects of body-mind training and relaxation stretching on persons with chronic toxic encephalopathy.

The purpose of this project was to investigate the psychological and physical effects of training of body awareness and slow stretching on persons with chronic toxic encephalopathy (CTE). In the present study, a method of self-regulation, a body-mind training, is presented. The body-mind training used was a guided relaxation technique combined with meditative stretching. The techniques are introduced and the psychological and physiological effects of the training is presented. Eight subjects with CTE, 48.5 years, were trained for 8 weeks. Outcome measures were percentage alpha brain waves (alpha%), electromyography (EMG) on the frontalis muscle, state-trait anxiety (STAI), creativity (RAT), and mood measured as anxiousness, humour and mental fatigue. The mean alpha% increased 52% during the training period (P < 0.01), and the EMG decreased 31% (P < 0.001. State anxiety decreased 22% during the training period (P < 0.01), but no changes were observed in trait anxiety and in the creativity score. The level of anxiousness and fatigue before a training session decreased during the training period. In conclusion, the body-mind training resulted in an improved ability for physical and mental relaxation as indicated from the lower EMG, the higher alpha% and the decrease in state anxiety.

Alpha Rhythm↗

PubMed2001

Effect of heavy dynamic resistive exercise on acute upper-body power.

There is limited research to support the notion that heavy resistive exercise immediately before a power movement may acutely enhance performance. Upper-body acute power enhancement during a stretch-shorten cycle (SSC) movement has not been previously investigated. The aim of this project was to determine whether a set of 5 repetitions of 5 repetition maximum (RM) bench press preceding explosive push-ups would significantly influence indicators of power: impulse and maximum rate of force development. Subjects randomly performed either explosive push-ups only over a force platform or a set of 5RM bench press before the explosive push-ups. There were no significant differences for any of the force platform data when the explosive push-ups were preceded by a set of 5RM bench press. It appears that heavy dynamic resistive upper-body exercise on its own before an upper-body power activity is inadequate in augmenting short-term power.

Adult↗

PubMed1988

Efficacy of neuromuscular stimulation of the quadriceps femoris during continuous passive motion following total knee arthroplasty.

The effect of neuromuscular stimulation of the quadriceps femoris combined with continuous passive motion (CPM) on the active extension range of motion and force of patients with total knee arthroplasty was investigated. The experimental group received three one-hour periods of electric stimulation per day in the extension cycle of the continuous passive motion. The control group received continuous passive motion without quadriceps electric stimulation. Both groups engaged in physical therapy consisting of active range of motion, quadriceps femoris setting, flexion and extension stretches, and ambulation. Manual goniometry and tensiometry were used to evaluate knee active extension range of motion and quadriceps strength. Upon dismissal, the stimulated group was able to generate more force at 90 degrees, 35 degrees, 20 degrees, and terminal extension of the involved knee, but none of these values was found to be statistically significant. Active extension range of motion of the stimulated group on dismissal showed a significant decrease in active extension lag (degrees) as compared to the control group. The experimental group averaged ten days in the hospital as compared to 12.5 for the control group, and subjectively noted decreased pain during stimulation.

Aged↗

PubMed2001

Upper extremity injuries associated with strength training.

Most injuries sustained during strength training are mild strains that resolve with appropriate rest. More severe injuries include traumatic shoulder dislocations, tendon ruptures of the pectoralis major, biceps, and triceps; stress fractures of the distal clavicle, humerus, radius, and ulna; traumatic fractures of the distal radius and ulna in adolescent weightlifters; and compressive and stretch neuropathies. These more severe injuries are usually the result of improperly performing a strength training exercise. Educating athletes regarding proper strength-training techniques serves to reverse established injury patterns and to prevent these injuries in the first place. Recognizing the association of anabolic steroid use to several of the injury patterns further reinforces the need for medical specialists to counsel athletes against their use. With the increasing use of supplements such as creatine, the incidence and nature of strength-training injuries may change further. Greater emphasis on the competitive performance of younger athletes undoubtedly will generate enthusiasm for strength training at earlier ages in both sexes. The importance of proper supervision of these young athletes by knowledgeable persons will increase. As the popularity of strength training grows, there will be ample opportunity to continue to catalog the injury patterns associated with this activity.

Anabolic Agents↗

PubMed2000

Arthroscopic decompression for impingement syndrome secondary to an unstable os acromiale.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to examine cases of patients with impingement syndrome secondary to an unfused, unstable, os acromiale. TYPE OF STUDY: Retrospective case series. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Twelve consecutive patients (13 shoulders) presented with impingement symptoms in the presence of an os acromiale. The os acromiale, at the meso-acromion level, was seen on standard radiographs. The patients were all treated conservatively with rotator cuff strengthening, stretching, anti-inflammatory medications, and steroid injections. All patients underwent an impingement test with lidocaine, resulting in complete relief of their pain. After failure of the conservative management, the 12 patients (13 shoulders) underwent an extended arthroscopic subacromial decompression. The goal of the modified arthroscopic acromioplasty was resection of adequate bone to remove the mobile anterior acromial tip. In general, this consisted of more bony resection than the typical arthroscopic acromioplasty. Postoperatively, the patients began a rehabilitation program emphasizing early range of motion followed by isolated free-weight rotator cuff strengthening exercises. Five shoulders had a partial-thickness tear of the rotator cuff. Four involved less than 50% of the thickness of the rotator cuff. These 4 partial-thickness tears underwent arthroscopic rotator cuff debridement. One partial-thickness tear was greater than 50% and repair was performed with a mini-open deltoid-splitting technique. RESULTS: Results were evaluated using UCLA shoulder scoring. Preoperatively, the score averaged 17. The 3-month postoperative score was 27, and at 6 and 12 months, averaged 28. The final follow-up score averaged 31. There were 11 satisfactory results with UCLA scores >/=28. Two unsatisfactory results showed UCLA scores in the fair category. Full strength of the anterior deltoid and rotator cuff muscles was achieved in all patients by 6 months postoperatively as evaluated by manual muscle testing. Twelve of the 13 shoulders were rated by the patients as having a satisfactory result. All of the patients rated their cosmetic results as acceptable. There was no evidence of postoperative deltoid detachment. No patient developed pain at the pseudarthrosis point. CONCLUSIONS: Given the previously reported poor results with attempts at fusion of an unstable os acromiale and open complete excision of meso-acromial fragments, the authors conclude that an extended arthroscopic subacromial decompression results in a reasonable outcome for patients with impingement syndromes secondary to an unstable os acromiale.

Acromion↗

PubMed2002

Power absorption and production during slow, large-amplitude stretch-shorten cycle motions.

The purpose of this study was to determine the important predictors of power absorption and power production during slow, large-amplitude stretch-shorten cycle (SSC) motions. The relationship between power absorption (mean eccentric power output) and production (mean concentric power output) across different inertial loads was also investigated. Fifty-four subjects with a sporting background performed concentric (CBP) and rebound bench-presses (RBP) at 40% and 80% of their one-repetition maximum (1RM). The relationship between kinematic and kinetic variables and mean eccentric power and RBP mean power output was determined using correlation and multiple regression analysis. Maximal strength was found to be the best single predictor of power absorption, explaining between 44.2% and 69.1% of the variability that was associated with mean eccentric power output for 40% and 80% 1RM loads. Stretch velocity in combination with maximal strength was found to be the best two-predictor model of power absorption ( R(2)=83.7-97.3%). The best single predictor of SSC power production was found to be concentric mean power output ( R(2)=49.2-88.0%). The utilisation of the power absorbed during the power production phase differed across loads. It was suggested that as maximal strength is more trainable than speed, training to improve power absorption might emphasise maximal strength development. It was also suggested that SSC power output might benefit from training methods that focus on concentric force development. Further research is needed to evaluate these hypotheses and whether the findings of this study are similar for fast SSC motion.

Adult↗

PubMed2006

Resistance training increases basal limb blood flow and vascular conductance in aging humans.

Age-related reductions in basal limb blood flow and vascular conductance are associated with the metabolic syndrome, functional impairments, and osteoporosis. We tested the hypothesis that a strength training program would increase basal femoral blood flow in aging adults. Twenty-six sedentary but healthy middle-aged and older subjects were randomly assigned to either a whole body strength training intervention group (52 +/- 2 yr, 3 men, 10 women) who underwent three supervised resistance training sessions per week for 13 wk or a control group (53 +/- 2 yr, 4 men, 9 women) who participated in a supervised stretching program. At baseline, there were no significant differences in blood pressure, cardiac output, basal femoral blood flow (via Doppler ultrasound), vascular conductance, and vascular resistance between the two groups. The strength training group increased maximal strength in all the major muscle groups tested (P < 0.05). Whole body lean body mass increased (P < 0.05) with strength training, but leg fat-free mass did not. Basal femoral blood flow and vascular conductance increased by 55-60% after strength training (both P < 0.05). No such changes were observed in the control group. In both groups, there were no significant changes in brachial blood pressure, plasma endothelin-1 and angiotensin II concentrations, femoral artery wall thickness, cardiac output, and systemic vascular resistance. Our results indicate that short-term strength training increases basal femoral blood flow and vascular conductance in healthy middle-aged and older adults.

Aging↗

PubMedDate not supplied

The effects of muscle fatigue on neuromuscular function and anterior tibial translation in healthy knees.

We investigated the effect of quadriceps and hamstring muscle fatigue on anterior tibial translation and muscle reaction time in 10 healthy subjects. The six men and four women had an average age of 21.3 years and had no known pathologic knee conditions. Each patient underwent a knee examination, arthrometer measurements of tibial translation, subjective functional assessment, and an anterior tibial translation stress test before and after quadriceps and hamstring muscle-fatiguing exercise. The recruitment order of the lower extremity muscles in response to anterior tibial translation did not change with muscle fatigue. However, the results showed an average increase of 32.5% in anterior tibial translation (range, 11.4% to 85.2%) after fatigue. Muscle responses in the gastrocnemius, hamstring, and quadriceps originating at the spinal cord and cortical level showed significant slowing and, in some cases, an absence of activity after the quadriceps and hamstring muscles were fatigued. The increases in displacement after fatigue strongly correlated (0.62 to 0.96) with a delay in cortical-level activity (intermediate and voluntary). Muscle fatigue, which appears to affect the dynamic stability of the knee, alters the neuromuscular response to anterior tibial translation. Therefore, fatigue may play an important role in the pathomechanics of knee injuries in physically demanding sports.

Adult↗

PubMed1997

Acute atraumatic compartment syndrome in an athlete: a case report.

OBJECTIVE: To present the case of a college football player with acute, atraumatic, exercise-induced compartment syndrome in the leg. BACKGROUND: Acute, atraumatic, exercise-induced compartment syndrome is an infrequently reported cause of leg pain in the athlete. If left untreated, acute compartment syndrome can cause muscle necrosis. DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS: Chronic exertional compartment syndrome, medial tibial syndrome, stress fracture. TREATMENT: Treatment consists of compartment fasciotomy. UNIQUENESS: This previously healthy, but unconditioned, athlete developed severe anterolateral left leg pain after two days of fall practice in which he was unable to run a mile in 7.5 minutes. Physical examination by the team physician revealed acute compartment syndrome, and an emergency anterolateral compartment fasciotomy was performed. Second-look débridement performed 48 hours later revealed no significant change in the necrotic appearance of the anterior compartment soft tissue. Therefore, the dead muscle was completely débrided, and a free-flap latissumus dorsi graft was used for coverage of the wound. With recovery, strength returned to normal in the lateral compartment but remained 0/5 in the anterior compartment. The patient had persistent sensory loss in the distributions of the superficial and deep peroneal nerves. CONCLUSIONS: Although much less common than the more frequent causes of leg pain (ie, chronic exertional compartment syndrome, medial tibial syndrome, stress fracture), acute compartment syndrome is potentially more devastating. When the increased intracompartmental pressure within a closed tissue space exceeds capillary perfusion pressure, tissue perfusion is decreased, the soft tissue becomes ischemic, and cells die. The most important clinical diagnostic signs of compartment syndrome are pain with passive stretching of the compartment and pain out of proportion to the results of the physical examination.

Journal Article↗

PubMed2006

Effects of differential stretching protocols during warm-ups on high-speed motor capacities in professional soccer players.

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of different modes of stretching within a pre-exercise warm-up on high-speed motor capacities important to soccer performance. Eighteen professional soccer players were tested for countermovement vertical jump, stationary 10-m sprint, flying 20-m sprint, and agility performance after different warm-ups consisting of static stretching, dynamic stretching, or no stretching. There was no significant difference among warm-ups for the vertical jump: mean +/- SD data were 40.4 +/- 4.9 cm (no stretch), 39.4 +/- 4.5 cm (static), and 40.2 +/- 4.5 cm (dynamic). The dynamic-stretch protocol produced significantly faster 10-m sprint times than did the no-stretch protocol: 1.83 +/- 0.08 seconds (no stretch), 1.85 +/- 0.08 seconds (static), and 1.87 +/- 0.09 seconds (dynamic). The dynamic- and static-stretch protocols produced significantly faster flying 20-m sprint times than did the no-stretch protocol: 2.41 +/- 0.13 seconds (no stretch), 2.37 +/- 0.12 seconds (static), and 2.37 +/- 0.13 seconds (dynamic). The dynamic-stretch protocol produced significantly faster agility performance than did both the no-stretch protocol and the static-stretch protocol: 5.20 +/- 0.16 seconds (no stretch), 5.22 +/- 0.18 seconds (static), and 5.14 +/- 0.17 seconds (dynamic). Static stretching does not appear to be detrimental to high-speed performance when included in a warm-up for professional soccer players. However, dynamic stretching during the warm-up was most effective as preparation for subsequent high-speed performance.

Acceleration↗

PubMed2002

Effect of passive range of motion exercises on lower-extremity goniometric measurements of adults with cerebral palsy: a single-subject design.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: People with spastic cerebral palsy often receive passive stretching that is intended to maintain or increase joint passive range of motion (PROM) even though the effectiveness of these exercises has not been definitively demonstrated. The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of PROM exercises on 6 adults with spastic quadriplegia and contractures. PARTICIPANTS: Four men and 2 women (X =31 years of age, range=20-44 years) who lived in an institution for people with mental retardation participated in the study. METHODS: The authors used 2 multiple baseline designs. Three participants (group 1) received lower-extremity PROM exercises during phase A; PROM exercises were discontinued during phase B. Three participants (group 2) did not receive PROM exercises during phase A; PROM exercises were initiated during phase B. Data were analyzed using visual analysis and the C statistic. RESULTS: Results varied with the method of analysis; however, phase A and phase B measurements, overall, did not differ for either group. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: This study demonstrated use of a single-subject design to measure the effect of PROM exercises on adults with cerebral palsy. The authors concluded that the PROM exercise protocol did not have an effect on the lower-extremity goniometric measurements of the participants.

Adult↗

PubMed1999

Resistance properties of Thera-Band tubing during shoulder abduction exercise.

STUDY DESIGN: Single-group, repeated measures. OBJECTIVES: To investigate the relationship between tubing length and tubing tension for 6 colors of Thera-Band tubing (each color representing a different level of resistance) and to estimate the resistive shoulder torque provided during shoulder abduction exercise. BACKGROUND: Thera-Band tubing is popular for providing resistance in rehabilitation strengthening programs. Unfortunately, it is difficult to compare use of elastic tubing with other resistance training methods because no published data exist on how much resistance is being provided during exercise. METHODS AND MEASURES: Nine male and 6 female subjects (age, 25.9 +/- 3.6 years; height, 173 +/- 10 cm) performed shoulder abduction, using 6 colors of tubing. A strain gauge attached at the fixed end of the tubing directly measured the tension generated during stretch. For each color of tubing, each subject momentarily held a position at 30 degrees, 60 degrees, 90 degrees, 120 degrees, and 150 degrees of abduction. Shoulder joint abduction, limb segment position, and tubing length were analyzed by means of the Peak Motion Measurement System. Simple linear regression equations predicted tubing tension from percent change in tubing length at the joint angle positions. A 2-way (5 x 6) repeated-measures ANOVA determined the mean differences in tubing tension across tubing colors at the shoulder abduction positions. RESULTS: Strong linear relationships were found for each tubing tension when referenced according to changes in tubing length. Significant differences in tension were found for the various colors of tubing. The resistive torque curves for each color tubing were similar to isotonic exercise. CONCLUSIONS: Thera-Band tubing provides linear resistance during shoulder abduction, but the resistive torque provided by the tubing mimics isotonic exercise.

Adult↗