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Sex-dimorphic behaviour development in the human: prenatal hormone administration and postnatal socialization.

An interdisciplinary integrative approach must be utilized in the study of psychosexual differentiation. The approach must capitalize on data derived from non-human models, from experiments of nature, and from experiments of nurture. Studies from non-human primates strongly suggest the influence of prenatal sex hormone levels on postnatal sexually dimorphic behaviours. Starting from this basis we have studied sixty young adult men whose mothers received, during pregnancy, diethylstilboestrol, diethylstilboestrol and natural progesterone, natural progesterone, or synthetic progesterone. They have been compared with matched controls not exposed in utero to exogenous hormones. Studies of socialization patterns must document the differential developmental experiences, if any, of children with atypical and typical sex-typed behaviours. To this end, we are studying 60 boys whose behaviour before puberty was decidedly feminine, and their parents, and contrasting them with masculine boys and their parents. We are also studying 50 girls whose behaviour before puberty was 'masculine', and contrasting them with 'feminine' girls. Additionally, we are studying the sexually dimorphic behaviour of children of sexually atypical parents. The parents have either undergone sex-change surgery (male-to-female or female-to-male) or are homosexual. Data from the three studies are presented. A call is made to researchers working with non-human primates to test and extend these findings.

Child↗

PubMed2005

Greater sciatic notch morphology: sex, age, and population differences.

The accuracy of a method for visually scoring sex differences in the greater sciatic notch was tested on 296 skeletons of known age and sex. The proportion of correct sex assignments is 80% when all specimens are classified, and 89% when os coxae assigned the score in which the sexes show the greatest overlap are excluded. Although many os coxae (35%) have this sexually intermediate morphology, excluding them has the advantage of substantially reducing sex biases in sexing errors. For both sexes, there is a strong relationship between age at death and sciatic notch score. People who die at a younger age tend to have wider, more feminine-appearing sciatic notches than people of greater longevity. There are also significant population differences. The 18th-19th century English sample from St. Bride's Church has a more feminine morphology than Americans of European or African ancestry. Environmental influences on skeletal development (vitamin D deficiency) appear to provide the most likely explanation for these population differences.

Adult↗

PubMed1979

Neonatal treatment of hamsters with barbiturate alters adult sexual behavior.

Male and female hamsters were given 50 micrograms pentobarbital, 100 micrograms pentobarbital, or 100 micrograms d-amphetamine on postnatal Days 2-4. When tested for masculine sexual behavior in adulthood, males treated with 100 micrograms pentobarbital showed behavioral deficits when tested with testes intact as well as after castration and treatment with testosterone propionate. Deficits shown by 50 micrograms pentobarbital males were overcome by testosterone replacement. When tested for feminine sexual behavior, males treated with 50 micrograms pentobarbital showed enhanced lordotic responses whereas males treated with 100 micrograms d-amphetamine showed no differences from controls when tested for female sexual behavior or when tested for male sexual behavior. Drug treatments had no effect on adult masculine or feminine sexual behavior in neonatally treated females. The results of this study show that pentobarbital can inhibit normal masculinization of the male when given during behavioral sexual differentiation.

Animals↗

PubMed1997

Androgen metabolism in the brain of the green anole lizard (Anolis carolinensis).

Activities of the steroid metabolizing enzymes aromatase and 5 alpha-reductase have been documented in species ranging from fish to humans, yet relatively little work has been done in this area in reptiles. In the green anole lizard, Anolis carolinensis, steroid hormones are critical to the display of both masculine and feminine sexual behaviors. For example, dihydrotestosterone and testosterone can stimulate both masculine courtship and copulatory behaviors, and estrogen and testosterone facilitate feminine receptivity. These results suggest roles for both aromatase (which catalyzes the conversion of testosterone to estradiol) and 5 alpha-reductase (which converts testosterone to dihydrotestosterone). This study documents the presence of both enzymes in the brain of the green anole and indicates that the activity of 5 alpha-reductase is much higher than that of aromatase in whole brain homogenates. However, differences exist among brain regions, such that aromatase activity is higher in preoptic area/hypothalamic dissections, whereas 5 alpha-reductase is much more active in the brain stem. These variations in regional enzyme activity may influence steroid hormone regulation of specific sexual behaviors in male and female anoles.

3-Oxo-5-alpha-Steroid 4-Dehydrogenase↗

PubMed1999

Effects of embryonic treatment with fadrozole on phenotype of gonads, syrinx, and neural song system in zebra finches.

Previous studies have found that treatment of zebra finch embryos with an aromatase inhibitor on Day 5 or 8 of incubation caused partial sex reversal of gonadal phenotype in females. These females possessed both testicular and ovarian tissue, and the development of the neural circuit for song remained feminine. The present study attempted more complete gonadal reversal by treating zebra finch embryos earlier, on Day 3 of incubation, with Fadrozole (CGS 16949A), an aromatase inhibitor, or with saline. We examined the phenotype of the syrinx (androgen-dependent vocal organ), the gonads, and the telencephallic neural song system in 100-day-old birds. Treated females typically possessed a left ovotestis and a right testis, and significantly larger syringes than control females. The histology and steroid synthetic enzyme activity of the testicular tissue in treated females were quite masculine and similar to that of control males. At the time of sacrifice, the plasma concentrations of testosterone and estradiol for fadrozole-treated females did not differ from those of control females, but dihydrotestosterone was lower in treated females. Despite the large amount of functional testicular tissue and a masculine syrinx, the volumes and soma sizes of song system nuclei (HVC, RA) in treated females remained feminine. These results suggest that testicular secretions masculinize the syrinx, but are not sufficient to masculinize the song system in zebra finches.

Animals↗

PubMed2002

Prenatal stress and gender role behavior in girls and boys: a longitudinal, population study.

Prenatal stress influences neural and behavioral sexual differentiation in rodents. Male offspring of stressed pregnancies show reduced masculine-typical characteristics and increased feminine-typical characteristics, whereas female offspring show the opposite pattern, reduced feminine-typical and increased masculine-typical characteristics. These outcomes resemble those seen following manipulations of gonadal hormones and are thought to occur because stress influences these hormones during critical periods of development. Research on prenatal stress and human sexual differentiation has produced inconsistent results, perhaps because studies have used small samples and assessed prenatal stress retrospectively. We related maternal self-reports of prenatal stress to childhood gender role behavior in a prospective, population study of 13,998 pregnancies resulting in 14,138 offspring. Neither stress reported during the first 18 weeks of pregnancy nor stress reported from week 19 of pregnancy to week 8 postnatal related to gender role behavior in male offspring at the age of 42 months. In female offspring, maternal reports of stress during both periods showed only small correlations with masculine-typical behavior. Although this relationship remained significant when other factors that related to stress were controlled, these other factors made larger contributions to girls' gender role behavior than did prenatal stress. In addition, in both boys and girls, older male or female siblings, parental adherence to traditional sex roles, maternal use of tobacco or alcohol during pregnancy, and maternal education all related significantly to gender role behavior. Our results suggest that prenatal stress does not influence the development of gender role behavior in boys and appears to have relatively little, if any, influence on gender role behavior in girls.

Child Behavior↗

PubMed1990

Ethics of caring and the institutional ethics committee.

Institutional ethics committees (IECs) in health care facilities now create moral policy, provide moral education, and consult with physicians and other health care workers. After sketching reasons for the development of IECs, this paper first examines the predominant moral standards it is often assumed IECs are now using, these standards being neo-Kantian principles of justice and utilitarian principles of the greatest good. Then, it is argued that a feminine ethics of care, as posited by Carol Gilligan and Nel Noddings, is an unacknowledged basis for IEC discussions and decisions. Further, it is suggested that feminine ethics of care can and should provide underlying theoretical tools and standards for IECs.

Decision Making↗

PubMed1977

The clinical syndromes of femmiphilic transvestism.

Thirty-four members of a club established for heterosexual transvestites were interviewed. They were categorized into two groups. Subjects in group I were satisfied with cross-dressing and did not desire additional feminization. Subjects in group II desired to alter their bodily appearance toward female by taking female hormones or by having surgical intervention. Group II transvestites cross-dressed more frequently and had a more intense feminine gender identity and stronger homosexual interests than did group I transvestites. A feminine gender identity appeared to be present from childhood in both groups but to be stronger in group II. Cross-dressing in subjects of both groups often occurred first during childhood and almost always prior to age 15. All subjects showed a period of fetishistic arousal to women's clothes during adolescence. With increasing age, fetishistic arousal diminished or disappeared and the frequency of cross-dressing increased. Terms in the literature used to describe the type of transvestism reported in this study are discussed. It was suggested that the term "femmiphilic transvestism" be used to describe the condition of the subjects of both groups. The term has fewer disadvantages than terms previously suggested.

Age Factors↗

PubMed1976

Two feminized male American Indians.

Two American Indian males are described who wish to change sex. Both appear to be anatomically normal; one is a monozygotic twin. In both cases, feminine identification began very early in life. In both cases, there were early acceptance and positive reinforcement of the feminine behavior. These two males and the environment in which they live are contrasted with the anthropological literature published decades ago describing the unique Indian tribal role played by feminized males.

Adult↗

PubMed1982

Bisexual feelings and opposite-sex behavior in male Malaysian medical students.

The sexual identity of 65 Malaysian male medical students was investigated by anonymous questionnaire. Of these students, 40% were aware of homosexual feelings prior to age 15 years, and 16% were so aware currently. There were correlations between current homosexual feelings and feminine sex dimorphic behavior during childhood and between current homosexual feelings and feminine gender identity. The results are discussed in light of results of a similar questionnaire completed by 138 male medical students in Sydney, Australia.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1987

Sexual orientation and boyhood gender conformity: development of the Boyhood Gender Conformity Scale (BGCS)

Two hundred twenty-five [corrected] respondents (109 [corrected] heterosexuals and 116 [corrected] homosexuals) completed a survey containing a 20-item Boyhood Gender Conformity Scale (BGCS). This scale was largely composed of edited and abridged gender items from Part A of Freund et al.'s Feminine Gender Identity Scale (FGIS-A) and Whitam's "childhood indicators." The combined scale was developed in an attempt to obtain a reliable, valid, and potent discriminating instrument for accurately classifying adult male respondents for sexual orientation on the basis of their reported boyhood gender conformity or nonconforming behavior and identity. In addition, 33% of these respondents were administered the original FGIS-A and Whitam inventory during a 2-week test-retest analysis conducted to determine the validity and reliability of the new instrument. All the original items significantly discriminated between heterosexual and homosexual respondents. From these a 13-item function and a 5-item function proved to be the most powerful discriminators between the two groups. Significant correlations between each of the three scales and a very high test-retest correlation coefficient supported the reliability and validity assumption for the BGCS. The conclusion was made that the five-item function (playing with boys, preferring [corrected] boys' games, imagining self as sports figure, reading adventure and sports stories, considered a "sissy") was the most potent and parsimonious discriminator among adult males for sexual orientation. It was similarly noted that the absence of masculine behaviors and traits appeared to be a more powerful predictor of later homosexual orientation than the traditionally feminine or cross-sexed traits and behaviors.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1993

Person drawings by transsexual clients, psychiatric clients, and nonclients compared: indicators of sex-typing and pathology.

The drawings by 31 transsexual clients, 61 psychiatric inpatients, and 62 nonclient college students were compared to derive information about whether they differed with regard to sex-typing and psychopathology. Transsexuals did not differ from nonclients or psychiatric patients as far as their conceptualization of masculinity is concerned, nor are they more or less sex-role stereotyped. However, their conceptualization of femininity of women differs significantly from that of the other groups in that transsexuals view women as more feminine than either of the other groups. Finally, transsexuals differed from both nonclients and psychiatric patients in inconsistent patterns across other variables, indicating that they are neither similar to nonpathological controls, nor to psychiatric inpatients. This uniqueness of the transsexual group is discussed in the context of multiple possible interpretations.

Adult↗

PubMed1975

Ablatio penis: normal male infant sex-reassigned as a girl.

Forty-five cases of genetic males were assigned and habilitated as females, 43 because of a congenitally defective penis (micropenis with or without hypospadias), and two because of infantile ablatio penis. One of the latter has an identical twin brother as a control. Now 9 years old, she has differentiated a female gender identity in marked contrast to the male gender identity of her brother. Some of the other patients are now adolescent or adult in age. They demonstrate that the twin can expect to be feminine in erotic expression and sexual life. Maintained on estrogen therapy, she will have normal feminine physique and a sexually attractive appearance. She will be able to establish motherhood by adoption.

Child↗

PubMed1978

Psychological adjustment of homosexual and heterosexual men: a cross-national replication.

The present investigation of British subjects replicated an investigation conducted in the United States. There was considerable agreement in the findings of the two studies. A multidimensional evaluation of adjustment, based on questionnaire data, indicated that the total sample of British homosexuals described themselves as less well adjusted than the heterosexuals on four factors, better adjusted on two factors, and not different on six factors. There was a significant difference on only one dimension, however, for selected groups of masculine homosexuals vs. heterosexuals. Homosexuals and heterosexuals low on feminity, in addition, tended to be better adjusted than homosexuals and heterosexuals high on femininity. The possible confusion between adjustment and masculinity-femininity, as well as the importance of using a multidimensional approach when considering adjustment, is discussed.

Adaptation, Psychological↗

PubMed1990

The relationship of male transsexual typology to psychosocial adjustment.

In a search to uncover variables predictive of psychosocial adjustment of male transsexuals, this study examined features which have been empirically linked to characteristics of male transsexual typology. Data from 25 male transsexual volunteers were examined by means of multiple regression analysis to determine whether symptoms of introversion, depression, or tension, as well as adjustment to work and gender reorientation could be linked to the typological variables of androphilia, gynephilia, cross-gender fetishism, feminine gender identity in childhood, and age of onset of transsexualism. Valid and reliable scales measuring the typological variables of erotic partner preference (androphilia and gynephilia), cross-gender fantasy in association with sexual arousal (cross-gender fetishism), and degree of feminine gender identity in childhood were used. Results indicate a significant relationship between social gender reorientation and the feature of androphilia and between work adjustment and gynephilia. This differential adaptation is explained in terms of the different course that transsexualism takes within each typological subgroup. These findings offer evidence as to why some transsexuals may more readily adopt a female gender identity than others. There was no relationship found between the typological features and those variables measuring psychological disturbance.

Adult↗

PubMed1995

Is gender dysphoria dysphoric? Elevated depression and anxiety in gender dysphoric and nondysphoric homosexual and bisexual men in an HIV sample. HNRC Group.

Few if any studies before the AIDS epidemic suggested that male homosexuals may on average have higher levels of depression than male heterosexuals. However, several samples of homosexual and bisexual men in HIV studies suggest that depression and anxiety are high in these populations, and that this psychiatric morbidity began before the AIDS epidemic. We tested the hypothesis that high childhood gender nonconformity (CGN) is associated with depression and anxiety, and so might account for differences in these variables among samples of homosexuals. A total of 254 homosexual or bisexual male subjects were assessed for depression, anxiety, and associated symptoms using various self-report and interview measures, as well as for CGN (using the Freund Feminine Gender Identity scale, FGI). For comparison purposes only, we also evaluated the subjects for the DSM-III diagnosis of Ego-Dystonic Homosexuality. Highly gender nonconforming men (high FGI scores) were more likely to have current symptoms of anxiety and depression by self-report, and to have had a lifetime history of depression by clinical interview. This association was more often due to FGI items dealing with childhood than adulthood. When the FGI was broken into subscales by a prior factor analysis, stepwise regression suggested that the subscale measuring core gender identity nonconformity (so-called "gender dysphoria") was more reliably associated with depression and anxiety than were the factors measuring nonconformity in the areas of masculine and feminine gender roles, or genitoerotic (sexual) roles. This subscale was also the only FGI measure correlating with Ego-Dystonic Homosexuality. AIDS (CDC stage and HIV serostatus) and age did not account for these findings. We conclude that the often-reported higher levels of depression, anxiety, and associated symptoms among homosexual and bisexual men in AIDS studies are more common in the subgroup of such men who are gender dysphoric. Theoretical and clinical implications of these data are discussed.

Adult↗

PubMed1975

Heterosexual interest in homosexual males.

Androphilic, ephebophilic, and homosexual pedophilic males were compared on heterosexual interest and arousal potential. The former was measured by the subjects' retrospective reports and the latter by penile responses to pictures of females. The penile responses of the ephebophilic and homosexual pedophilic groups to pictures of physically mature females were not different from those of androphilic males. In the present study as well as in an earlier one, the ephebophilic males responded significantly more to physically mature males than to physically mature females. Homosexual pedophilic males showed little difference in responses to physically mature males and females. In retrospective reports of heterosexual interest and experience and of development of homosexual interest and activities, there were only two differences among the groups: as opposed to androphilic males, a relatively greater number of ephebophilic and homosexual pedophilic males indicated that up to age 15 or later they had felt attracted exclusively to females and that they had been seduced in childhood or early adolescence by a male. These results will have to be replicated before being accepted as reliable. As in some earlier studies, there was a weak but significant correlation of degree of "feminine gender identity" with age at onset of homosexual interest and with heterosexual interest or experience. A higher degree of feminine gender identity went together with less heterosexual interest and experience and with an earlier onset of homosexual interest and experience.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1983

Measuring physical aggressiveness in heterosexual, homosexual, and transsexual males.

The purpose of this study was the development of a self-report measure of boyhood aggressiveness for use with adult males. Aggressiveness was defined as a generalized disposition to engage in physically combative or competitive interactions with male peers. This attribute is of sexological interest because of the reported difference in physical aggressiveness between heterosexual and homosexual boys. A physical aggressiveness scale (PAS) was constructed from items regarding boyhood athletic interest and proficiency, as well as fighting with and feelings of unease around male peers. The PAS and Part A of the Feminine Gender Identity Scale for males (FGIS(A), Freund et al., 1977) were administered to 193 adult men. The PAS was shown to be reliable and factorially pure. The PAS scores of homosexuals were significantly lower than those of heterosexuals, and the scores of male-to-female transsexuals were lower yet. No differences were found among three heterosexual groups: prison inmates and nonuniversity- and university-educated males. Precisely symmetrical results were obtained with the FGIS(A), with the male-to-female transsexuals scoring highest and the heterosexuals lowest. Group differences in FGIS(A) scores were greater than those in PAS scores; this was interpreted as possible evidence that physical aggressiveness is more sensitive than gender identity to variables uncorrelated with erotic preference, e.g., perceptual-motor ability, rate of physical maturation, etc. The main results suggest that whatever underlying factor relates homosexuality to feminine gender identity in childhood relates this erotic preference to anomalously low levels of physical aggressiveness in childhood as well.

Adult↗