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At least 865 records · Page 48Linked to original sources

PubMed2000

Muscle response pattern to sudden trunk loading in healthy individuals and in patients with chronic low back pain.

STUDY DESIGN: A quick-release method in four directions of isometric trunk exertions was used to study the muscle response patterns in 17 patients with chronic low back pain and 17 matched control subjects. OBJECTIVES: It was hypothesized that patients with low back pain would react to sudden load release with a delayed muscle response and would exhibit altered muscle recruitment patterns. SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA: A delay in erector spinae reaction time after sudden loading has been observed in patients with low back pain. Muscle recruitment and timing pattern play an important role in maintaining lumbar spine stability. METHODS: Subjects were placed in a semiseated position in an apparatus that provided stable fixation of the pelvis. They exerted isometric contractions in trunk flexion, extension, and lateral bending. Each subject performed three trials at two constant force levels. The resisted force was suddenly released with an electromagnet and electromyogram signals from 12 trunk muscles were recorded. The time delay between the magnet release and the shut-off or switch-on of muscle activity (reaction time) was compared between two groups of subjects using two-factor analysis of variance. RESULTS: The number of reacting muscles and reaction times averaged over all trials and directions showed the following results: For healthy control subjects a shut-off of agonistic muscles (with a reaction time of 53 msec) occurred before the switch-on of antagonistic muscles (with a reaction time of 70 msec). Patients exhibited a pattern of co-contraction, with agonists remaining active (3.4 out of 6 muscles switched off) while antagonists switched on (5.3 out of 6 muscles). Patients also had longer muscle reaction times for muscles shutting off (70 msec) and switching on (83 msec) and furthermore, their individual muscle reaction times showed greater variability. CONCLUSIONS: Patients with low back pain, in contrast to healthy control subjects, demonstrated a significantly different muscle response pattern in response to sudden load release. These differences may either constitute a predisposing factor to low back injuries or a compensation mechanism to stabilize the lumbar spine.

Adult↗

PubMed2000

Effects of thoracolumbosacral orthosis on spinal deformities, trunk asymmetry, and frontal lower rib cage in adolescent idiopathic scoliosis.

STUDY DESIGN: Prospective study. OBJECTIVES: To document immediate and late changes in shape and balance of the thoracic and lumbar spine and lower rib cage on the frontal plane induced by treatment with a thoracolumbosacral orthosis (TLSO). SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA: The effect of TLSO on lateral plane of spinal deformity, frontal lower rib cage, trunk balance, and natural history are poorly understood. METHODS: Twenty-four female adolescents with major thoracic and/or lumbar scoliosis, averaging 30 degrees and 26 degrees, respectively, were treated with a full-time TLSO program. Scoliosis, kyphosis, convex, and concave rib-vertebral angles T7 to T12, frontal trunk balance, frontal vertebral inclination, rotation and translation from T7 to L4-vertebrae were measured before bracing, 1 month after bracing, and biannually thereafter in brace and without brace for a 4-year period and reevaluated at the age of 20 years, at an average of 3.5 years after termination of bracing to measure any permanent changes. RESULTS: Thoracolumbosacral orthosis treatment corrected both thoracic and lumbar scoliosis and reduced lateral trunk shift at the expense of significant, although temporary reduced physiological thoracic kyphosis, increased lateral displacement of T7 to T10, increased frontal inclination of L2 to L4, and elevation of the apical concave rib in favor of reduction of lateral displacement of T11 to L4; decreased frontal inclination of T7, T9, and T11; and derotated L1 and L2 and thoracic apical vertebra without affecting drooping of the 7th to 12th ribs. In this series, there was marked inconsistency in the obtained changes in several of the roentgenographic parameters in the different evaluations, which is probably because of the empiric application of the TLSO during different periods of treatment. 3.5 years after termination of TLSO-wearing, all roentgenographic parameters remained to the prebrace values. CONCLUSIONS: Thoracolumbosacral orthosis program maintained the measured roentgenographic parameters at the prebrace levels in progressive adolescent idiopathic scoliosis, but it had no effect on the droop of the seven lower ribs. The TLSO treatment stopped progression of scoliosis and reduced the number of patients requiring surgery. Thus, it changed the natural history of scoliosis.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2001

Timing of activation of the erector spinae and hamstrings during a trunk flexion and extension task.

STUDY DESIGN: Timing of activation of the hamstrings and erector spinae was assessed using surface electromyography. OBJECTIVES: To investigate the influence of posture and movement speed during trunk flexion-extension on the flexion-relaxation response and trunk muscle activation patterns. SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA: The literature contains numerous reports on coactivity and synergistic behavior of major muscle groups during trunk flexion-extension. There are few reports on the timing of muscle activation. METHODS: Six subjects were recruited for a training session and six biweekly test sessions. Ten surface electromyogram electrodes and a lordosimeter were used to record timing of lumbar motion and muscle recruitment in the hamstrings and at four sites in the thoracolumbar region. A 3 x 2 within-subject factorial design was used to test the effects of posture and speed on activation patterns. RESULTS: Patterns of muscle activation were found to be dependent on posture and the direction of movement. The flexion-relaxation response was pervasive in the lumbar region but was less consistent at the T9 and hamstring sites. Significant differences in the delay between electromyogram activation and lumbar motion were found for the standing postures at initiation of extension, in which activation progressed in the caudad-to-cephalad direction. CONCLUSIONS: The flexion-relaxation response is ubiquitous in the lumbar erector spinae and is present in the hamstrings and lower thoracic erector spinae, although not consistently in all subjects. In standing, timing of activation differed significantly by site in extension but not in flexion. Muscle activation patterns and flexion-relaxation were consistent over six biweekly test sessions.

Adult↗

PubMed2001

Identifying feigned isokinetic trunk extension effort in normal subjects: an efficiency study of the DEC.

STUDY DESIGN: A test-retest comparison of maximal and feigned trunk extension effort in normal subjects was performed. OBJECTIVE: To test the robustness of an index termed DEC for differentiating maximal from feigned effort in normal subjects. SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA: Previous studies have indicated that the DEC, which is the difference between the eccentric to concentric strength ratio at two test velocities, is a powerful identifier of feigned effort. This has been found for various muscle groups including the trunk extensors. However, whether this efficiency is affected by exposure to the protocol, learning, or other factors had not been examined. METHODS: Using a KinCom isokinetic dynamometer, 18 men and 17 women were tested twice within 1 to 2 weeks. Concentric and eccentric efforts of the trunk extensors were exerted using a short range of motion (20 degrees ) and two test velocities (10 degrees and 40 degrees per second). In the first part of each test, participants exerted maximal force against the lever arm, whereas in the second part they were to feign their maximal capability, pretending the presence of injury. RESULTS: In both Tests I and II, the feigned DEC scores (DECf) of all the participants were greater than the maximal DEC (DECm) scores (P = 0.0001). Repeated measurement analysis showed that neither DECm nor DECf varied systematically from Test 1 to Test 2. On the basis of the individual male scores, the DEC cutoff score of 0.41 was 100% efficient in Test 1 at differentiating feigned from maximal effort, with neither false-positive nor false-negative cases. Test 2 had a single false-positive case (efficiency 95%), and the optimal cutoff score was 0.275. In the female group, the corresponding efficiency of the DEC was 82% (optimal cutoff, 0.35) for Test 1 and 70% (optimal cutoff, 0.25-0.35) for Test 2. A statistical model for tolerance intervals at 90%, 95% and 99% indicated higher cutoff values for women than men. CONCLUSION: In healthy subjects, the DEC effectively differentiates feigned from maximal performance.

Adult↗

PubMed2002

Upper sympathetic trunk lesion after video-assisted fracture stabilization of the thoracic spine: a case report.

This case report draws attention to the upper sympathetic trunk lesion as a complication of video-assisted thoracic spine surgery. A 39-year-old man developed an upper sympathetic trunk lesion after right-sided thoracoscopic fracture stabilization of T5 and T6. Dizziness and reduced perspiration persisted at the most recent follow-up 8 months after surgery. This rare complication can be overlooked and remain undiagnosed. Diagnosis is based on clinical symptoms and neurologic examination. There are no treatment options. Symptoms can be bothersome for the patient and may persist. In the upper thoracic spine, the course of the sympathetic trunk lies in close proximity of the vertebral bodies; thus, care must be taken to avoid it when resecting the posterior parts of the vertebral body.

Adult↗

PubMed2003

Derecruitment of the lumbar musculature with fatiguing trunk extension exercise.

STUDY DESIGN: This was a descriptive study involving 20 healthy individuals. OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the neuromuscular activation patterns of the lumbar paraspinal and hip extensor muscles during isotonic trunk extension exercise. SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA: Few studies have evaluated the effect of muscle fatigue on the lumbar musculature during isotonic exercise. METHODS: Electromyographic activity was recorded continuously from the lumbar paraspinal, gluteus maximus, and biceps femoris muscles during isotonic trunk extension exercise performed to muscular failure. Root mean squared electromyography was determined over the concentric portion of each repetition, and polynomial regression analysis was used to describe the association between fatigue and the recruitment patterns. RESULTS: The lumbar paraspinals demonstrated an increase in the electromyogram signal up to 57.9% of maximal fatigue, at which point decrements in electromyography were observed (lumbar [quadratic curve] R2 = 0.0807, SEE = 0.228; beta2 = -8.245(-5)) (P < 0.000). Associated with fatigue, the gluteus maximus demonstrated an increase in electromyography, with an exponential breakpoint occurring at 35.9% of maximal fatigue (gluteus maximus [quadratic curve]: R2 = 0.5059, SEE = 0.865; beta2 = 0.00017) (P = 0.014). The biceps femoris demonstrated a linear increase in electromyography with fatigue (R2 = 0.4667, SEE = 0.284; beta2 = 0.0091) (P < 0.000). To further investigate the derecruitment of the lumbar extensors associated with fatigue, study participants were analyzed individually with regression analyses. Results revealed that the majority of study participants (68.5%) demonstrated a significant decrease (quadratic bend) in lumbar electromyography, with decrements in muscle activity beginning at 53% of maximum. CONCLUSION: During fatiguing trunk extension exercise, an increase in the lumbar paraspinal electromyogram signal occurs up to approximately 55% of maximum fatigue, at which point a decrease in electromyography is observed. Associated with this derecruitment is a concomitant increase in hip extensor muscle activity, suggesting that as the lumbar musculature becomes fatigued, these muscles allow for continuation of the exercise.

Abdominal Muscles↗

PubMed2005

The use of magnetic resonance imaging to evaluate lumbar muscle activity during trunk extension exercise at varying intensities.

STUDY DESIGN: Descriptive, repeated measures analysis of exercise-induced changes in lumbar muscle transverse relaxation time (T2). OBJECTIVES: To use muscle functional magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to characterize the activity levels and recruitment patterns of the lumbar extensor muscles during trunk extension exercise over 3 intensities. SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA: Contrast shifts in T2 are indicative of skeletal muscle activity during resistance exercise and are used to characterize the function of a variety of muscles. The use of muscle functional MRI for the lumbar muscles has been limited. METHODS: In 11 healthy participants, T2 was calculated for the lumbar quadratus lumborum, iliocostalis lumborum, longissimus thoracis, and multifidus at rest and following dynamic trunk extension exercise at 3 exercise intensities (40%, 50%, and 70% peak intensity). RESULTS: The multifidus displayed the largest T2 increase at each of the 3 exercise intensities, followed by the erector spinae and, finally, the quadratus lumborum. At the lowest intensity, the medial erector spinae (longissimus thoracis) displayed a higher T2 increase than the lateral group (iliocostalis lumborum), while at the higher intensities, this pattern was reversed. In general, the T2 increase was higher during exercise at 50% and 70% intensities than at 40%, while there was no difference in T2 increase between 50% and 70%. CONCLUSIONS: Muscle functional MRI can be used to characterize lumbar muscle function during trunk extension exercise. The levels and recruitment patterns of the lumbar extensors, as measured by muscle T2 shifts, vary with exercise intensity. Future research is needed to assess the mechanism of the nonlinear relationship between T2 shifts and exercise intensity, and to clarify the effects of fatigue and the order of exercise presentation on the T2 response of the lumbar extensors.

Adult↗

PubMed2006

Altered patterns of superficial trunk muscle activation during sitting in nonspecific chronic low back pain patients: importance of subclassification.

STUDY DESIGN: A cross-sectional comparative study between healthy controls and two subgroups of nonspecific chronic low back pain (LBP) patients. OBJECTIVES: To determine differences in trunk muscle activation during usual unsupported sitting. SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA: Patients with LBP commonly report exacerbation of pain on sitting. Little evidence exists to confirm that subgroups of patients with nonspecific chronic LBP patients use different motor patterns in sitting than pain-free controls. METHODS: A total of 34 pain-free and 33 nonspecific chronic LBP subjects were recruited. Two blinded clinicians classified nonspecific chronic LBP patients into two subgroups (active extension pattern and flexion pattern). Surface electromyography (sEMG) was recorded from five trunk muscles during subjects' unsupported "usual" and "slumped" sitting. RESULTS: No differences in trunk muscle activity were observed between healthy controls and nonspecific chronic LBP groups for usual sitting. When the classification system was applied, differences were identified. Compared with no-LBP controls, the active extension pattern group presented with higher levels of cocontraction of superficial fibers of lumbar multifidus (12%), iliocostalis lumborum pars thoracis (36%) and transverse fibers of internal oblique (43%). while the flexion pattern group showed a trend toward lower activation patterns (lumbar multifidus, -7%; iliocostalis lumborum pars thoracis, -6%, and transverse fibers of internal oblique, -5%). The flexion relaxation ratio of the back muscles was lower for nonspecific chronic LBP (superficial lumbar multifidus: t = 4.5; P < 0.001 and iliocostalis lumborum pars thoracis:t = 2.7; P < 0.001), suggesting a lack of flexion relaxation for the nonspecific chronic LBP. CONCLUSION: Subclassifying nonspecific chronic LBP patients revealed clear differences in sEMG activity during sitting between pain-free subjects and subgroups of nonspecific chronic LBP patients.

Abdominal Muscles↗

PubMed2004

Staged repair of extensive aortic aneurysms: long-term experience with the elephant trunk technique.

OBJECTIVE: This paper reports our experience of a large series of elephant trunk patients accumulated over 12 years. SUMMARY BACKGROUND DATA: Extensive aneurysms of the ascending/arch and descending thoracic or thoracoabdominal aorta are significant surgical problems that have potential for great morbidity. We adopted a staged approach known as the elephant trunk procedure in 1991, and we have used it with some modifications since that time. METHODS: Between February 1991 and December 2003, we performed 1660 operations for ascending/arch or descending thoracic/thoracoabdominal aortic aneurysms. Of these, 321 operations were performed in 218 patients for extensive aneurysms with the elephant trunk technique. We performed 218 ascending/arch repairs and 103 descending thoracic or thoracoabdominal aortic replacements. RESULTS: In 218 ascending/arch repairs, strokes occurred in 3 of 218 (2.7%) patients, with 1 of 187 (0.5%) in the retrograde cerebral perfusion group and 2 of 31 (6.5%) in the no-retrograde cerebral perfusion group (odds ratio 0.08, P < 0.009). Thirty-day mortality for this group was 19 of 218 (8.7%). Among 199 recovering patients after stage 1 repair, 4 of 199 (2%) died during the 30-day to 6-week interval between stages. After stage 2 repair, 0 of 103 patients experienced immediate neurologic deficit, and 10 of 103 (9.7%) died within 30 days of surgery. Actuarial survival after completed stage 2 was 71% at 5 years. CONCLUSION: Despite extreme underlying disease, long-term survival is excellent in patients with extensive aneurysms when both stages of repair are completed. To prevent rupture, the second stage should be completed as soon as the patient's condition permits, preferably within 6 weeks.

Actuarial Analysis↗

PubMed1984

Development of trunk asymmetries and structural scoliosis in prepuberal school children in Malmö: follow-up study of children 10-14 years of age.

Trunk asymmetries were diagnosed at the age of 10 in school children (2,200 cases) in Malmö. A combined clinical-moiré screening program was used. Twenty-five percent of the girls and 19% of the boys had a positive forward bending test. A positive moiré asymmetry was seen in 13% of the girls and in 11% of the boys. More extreme moiré asymmetries were seen in 0.8% of the girls and 0.6% of the boys. All of these cases were roentgenographed and the mean Cobb angle was 14 degrees. Moiré asymmetries of one moiré fringe or more were defined as a risk group and were followed up annually until the age of 14 years by means of moiré photography. During the following 3 years, the moiré asymmetry increased markedly in 14 girls and four boys. Five of these 32 roentgenographed cases had progressive scoliosis needing brace treatment. All cases referred to as symmetric trunks at the age of 10 were also reexamined annually. In no case did the scoliosis exceed 15 degrees. This implies that adolescents with scoliosis severe enough to need treatment always had a visible trunk asymmetry at the age of 10. Consequently, progressive idiopathic scoliosis requiring some type of treatment during adolescence can be found in this risk group at the age of 10 years.

Adolescent↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Effect of a thoracolumbosacral orthosis on lateral trunk shift in idiopathic scoliosis.

The effect of the Wilmington brace on lateral trunk shift in adolescent idiopathic scoliosis was studied in 80 patients. With an average follow-up of 1 year 10 months after completion of brace treatment, improvement was seen in 58% of those patients with thoracic curves, 65% with thoracolumbar-lumbar curves, and 88% with double major curves. Lateral trunk shift decreased an average of 0.8 cm in patients with thoracic curves and 1.0 cm in patients with thoracolumbar-lumbar or double major curves. Improvement of existing lateral trunk shift was an additional consideration for instituting brace treatment in idiopathic scoliosis.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1988

Freeze-fracture studies on unmyelinated axolemma of rat cervical sympathetic trunk: correlation with saxitoxin binding.

The density and diameter distributions of intramembranous particles (IMPs) within unmyelinated axolemma from rat cervical sympathetic trunk were examined with freeze-fracture electron microscopy. The axolemma displays a highly asymmetrical partitioning of IMPs with ca. 1200 IMPs microns-2 on P-faces and ca. 100 IMPs microns-2 on E-faces. Particle sizes (diameters) are unimodally distributed on both fracture faces, with a range from 2.4 nm to 15.6 nm. Approximately 16% of the particles on P-faces and 28% of particles on E-faces are of a large (greater than 9.6 nm) diameter. On both fracture faces, the IMPs appear to be randomly distributed; no aggregations of particles were observed. The results indicate that there are ca. 230 large IMPs microns-2 of unmyelinated axolemma from rat cervical sympathetic trunk. The density of these IMPs is similar to the density of saxitoxin binding sites on unmyelinated axolemma from rat cervical sympathetic trunk (Pellegrino et al. 1984 (Brain Res. 305, 357-360)), which suggests that many of the large diameter particles may be the morphological correlate of voltage-sensitive Na+ channels.

Animals↗

PubMed2000

Head and trunk in zebrafish arise via coinhibition of BMP signaling by bozozok and chordino.

Spatial variations in the levels of bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) signaling are a critical determinant of dorsoanterior-ventroposterior pattern in vertebrate embryos. Whereas BMP overexpression abolishes both head and trunk development, known single and double loss-of-function mutations in BMP inhibitors have less dramatic effects. We report that combining mutations in the zebrafish genes bozozok and chordino causes a synergistic loss of head and trunk, whereas most cells express ventro-posterior markers and develop into a tail. Genetic inactivation of BMP signaling fully suppresses these defects. Thus, a remarkably simple genetic mechanism, involving a coinhibition of BMP function by the partially overlapping bozozok and chordino pathways is used to specify vertebrate head and trunk.

Animals↗

PubMed1994

Selective stimulation of smaller fibers in a compound nerve trunk with single cathode by rectangular current pulses.

Electrical stimulation of unmyelinated nerve fibers is analyzed, using point sources in a simple volume conductor model and a dynamic Hodgkin-Huxley model of nerve fiber. The excitation and blocking threshold of single cathode stimulation with an indifference anode at infinity are calculated by solving difference equations with axons of different diameters. The relation between the blocking threshold and the pulsewidth of single cathode stimulation is also calculated. The results suggest a method of selectively stimulating the smaller fibers in a compound nerve trunk. Two kinds of stimulation electrodes are designed to test this method. Both of them are proven to yield results in accordance with our model by the animal experiments on a toad's sciatic nerve trunk. It is possible to excite the smaller fibers without exciting the larger ones in a compound nerve trunk by properly controlling the stimulus intensity. The method is likely to be used in both physiological experiments and neural prostheses.

Action Potentials↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Generalizability of trunk muscle EMG and spinal forces.

The generalizability of trunk muscle EMG and spinal loading estimates obtained from an EMG-assisted biomechanical model was assessed over three occasions and three repetitions. The greatest sources of variability consisted of the intersubject differences and the interaction between subject and occasion. The ID (reliability coefficient) was less for trunk muscle activity compared with estimates of anteroposterior shear force, compression force, and gain computed from the biomechanical model. In order to obtain an ID of 0.8, we recommend five testing occasions for submaximal EMG measurements and three testing occasions for biomechanical estimates. Reproducible estimates of maximal trunk extensor EMG could not be obtained within five testing occasions and five repetitions. Although many recruitment patterns could cause the same extension torque output, their net effect on internal loading seems to be less variable than the underlying measurements.

Abdominal Muscles↗

PubMed1997

45-hour continuous quintuple-site actimetry: relations between trunk and limb movements and effects of circadian sleep-wake rhythmicity.

Diurnal and nocturnal trunk and limb motor activity of 20 healthy individuals was evaluated by actimetry for 45 consecutive hours. Sleep was assessed by sleep logs. Overall, motor activity significantly (p < .05) decreased in the order wrist, ankle, and trunk. There was significantly more motor activity in the dominant wrist during the diurnal period. Motor activity was significantly affected by the 24-hr sleep-wake cycle, with lower levels and prolonged immobility during the night. Time series analyses revealed different but significant correlations between motor activity at all sites. These data imply that (a) motor activity should be recorded at the dominant wrist when the highest level of motor activity is of importance, (b) recordings at the nondominant wrist are better indicators of trunk movement than are dominant wrist recordings, and (c) sites other than the conventional nondominant wrist recording site should be evaluated to improve the validity of motor activity-based sleep-wake scoring.

Adult↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Expression of trunk Hox genes in the centipede Strigamia maritima: sense and anti-sense transcripts.

We report the coding sequence and embryonic expression of the four trunk Hox genes Antennapedia (Antp), Ultrabithorax (Ubx), abdominal-A (abd-A), and Abdominal-B (Abd-B) in the geophilomorph centipede Strigamia maritima. In geophilomorph centipedes, all leg-bearing segments (LBS) are generated during embryogenesis, allowing us to define expression in relation to the full extent of the forming trunk. Persistent Antp expression characterizes the maxillipedal (poison claw) segment, whereas all LBS express the three Hox genes Antp, Ubx, and abd-A. Abd-B is never detectably expressed in segmented tissue, but is restricted to a zone around the proctodaeum that contributes to the hindgut. Expression of all these Hox genes initiates in the unsegmented tissue of the blastodisc, with expression of Antp respecting a sharply defined anterior border before the appearance of morphological segmentation in the trunk. The accumulation of Hox gene transcripts is strongly modulated by the maturing segment pattern, suggesting regulatory interactions with multiple levels of the segment patterning machinery. For one of these genes, Ubx, we detect both sense and anti-sense transcripts. The anti-sense transcripts originate 3' to the Ubx coding sequence and overlap the homeobox exon; they are expressed earlier than the Ubx coding transcripts and persistently, in an axially restricted pattern comparable to but distinct from those of the Hox coding transcripts. The pattern of accumulation of Ubx sense and anti-sense transcripts is strikingly complementary, suggesting the possibility of anti-sense regulation of Ubx expression.

Amino Acid Sequence↗

PubMed1988

Local glucose utilization of the brain and pineal gland during stimulation of the cervical sympathetic trunk.

The quantitative autoradiographic 2-[14C]deoxyglucose method was employed to map the metabolic activity of the superior cervical ganglion and the entire brain during unilateral electrical stimulation of the cervical sympathetic trunk in the urethane-anesthetized rat. Stimulation of the cervical sympathetic trunk increased glucose utilization in the ipsilateral superior cervical ganglion (+95%) but did not produce side-to-side differences in glucose utilization in any of the brain structures examined in this study. Compared to the control nonstimulated animals, the rate of glucose metabolism in the pineal gland was increased 71% following stimulation of the cervical sympathetic trunk. The pineal gland was the only brain region out of 87 structures examined in which glucose utilization was increased by electrical stimulation of its sympathetic innervation.

Animals↗