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PubMedDate not supplied

Effectiveness of force application in manual wheelchair propulsion in persons with spinal cord injuries.

The objective of this study was to investigate effectiveness of force application, the ratio power output/energy expenditure, and timing parameters of wheelchair propulsion in persons with tetraplegia (TP, n=17) and paraplegia (PP, n=12), at two different intensity conditions. All subjects performed a maximal exercise test on a wheelchair ergometer. Exercise bouts with an intensity of 30 to 50% and 60 to 80% of the maximal power output were analyzed. Effectiveness of force application, defined as the ratio of the effective force and the total force, was considerably lower in TP, compared with PP. Effectiveness of force application in the plane of the wheel was comparable between TP and PP. TP showed a significantly lower effectiveness of force application in the frontal plane and applied the forces in a more lateromedial direction to the hand rim. The ratio power output/energy expenditure, calculated as an indication of gross mechanical efficiency, was considerably lower in TP and was associated with the effectiveness of force application (r=0.64; P < 0.01). Timing parameters showed that TP positioned their hands in a more backward position on the hand rim. Comparing the different intensity conditions revealed that force was applied more effectively, and the ratio power output/energy expenditure was higher at the higher intensity condition. Push time, relative to cycle time, increased, and beginning angle showed a forward shift with a higher load. TP tended to decrease, whereas PP showed a tendency for an increase in stroke angle with a higher load. The low effectiveness and different pattern of force application in TP should be taken into account when developing other wheelchair propelling mechanisms and training programs for this population.

Adult↗

PubMed1985

Trendelenburg versus PASG application in moderate hemorrhagic hypoperfusion.

In hemorrhagic hypoperfusion one of the therapeutic goals of pneumatic antishock garment (PASG) application is to increase cardiac output, presumably by augmenting venous return from below the diaphragm, an effect expected to be similar to Trendelenburg positioning. The purpose of this study was to compare the hemodynamic response of these two common therapeutic interventions in hemorrhagic hypoperfusion. Five anesthetized dogs were bled over 10 minutes 24% of measured blood volume on two separate days. At the beginning of hemorrhage, they randomly received either PASG application or Trendelenburg positioning. PASG pressures of 30 +/- 5 mm Hg were applied to produce an inferior vena cava pressure of 10-15 mm Hg. Such PASG pressure had been shown previously to not diminish cardiac output from PASG application. Mean arterial pressure was maintained throughout the experiment with both therapies. With PASG application, cardiac index was depressed and systemic vascular resistance was elevated at 10, 20, and 30 minutes following hemorrhage. In contrast, Trendelenburg therapy maintained cardiac index and produced no significant increase in systemic vascular resistance index. Thus Trendelenburg therapy preserved mean arterial pressure primarily by maintaining cardiac output, probably by increasing venous return, whereas PASG application preserved mean arterial pressure primarily by increasing systemic vascular resistance. For treatment of moderate hemorrhagic hypoperfusion, Trendelenburg positioning may be superior therapy to PASG application.

Animals↗

PubMed1999

An accurate adjustable applicator for magnetic resonance imaging-based stereotactic procedure using the Leksell G frame.

OBJECTIVE: An applicator system for the Leksell G frame was constructed to enable accurate placement of the frame for stereotactic magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and successful stereotactic surgery. The applicator prevents inaccurate placement of the fiducial box on the patient's head and prevents contact of the frame holder with the patient's shoulder while in the MRI unit. It also helps to ensure optimal positioning of desired targets within the three-dimensional stereotactic space defined by the frame. METHODS: The applicator is made of transparent acrylic plates, which simulate the fiducial box that is attached to the frame for the preoperative stereotactic MRI study. An air cuff at the top supports the frame at any desired height and makes minute adjustments possible. Side cuffs help to keep the frame at the desired position from right to left. Indicators attached to the frame for the anterior fiducial plate prevent potential contact of the plate with the anterior posts and help avoid a poor fit caused by bending of the frame from excessive torque on the cranium fixation screws. Indicators for the MRI frame holder on the foot screws predict potential collision of the holder with the patient's shoulder before actually applying the holder on the frame. The applicator shows the range and limits of the Leksell stereotactic arc. RESULTS: This applicator system has been used effectively in more than 89 MRI-based functional stereotactic procedures. These include pallidotomy, thalamotomy, implantation of deep brain stimulators, and implantation of depth electrodes. It has functioned well and has facilitated excellent operative results in these cases. CONCLUSION: This simple frame applicator eliminates the need for reapplication of the stereotactic frame and additional imaging studies, thus providing successful and appropriate frame placement for stereotactic surgery.

Brain↗

PubMed1999

Comparison of internal medicine, pediatric, and medicine/pediatrics applicants and factors influencing career choices.

BACKGROUND: A reemergence of medical students choosing primary care is occurring, with medicine/pediatrics as an increasingly popular option. We compared applicants to pediatrics, medicine, and medicine/pediatrics and the factors that influence career choice. METHODS: We designed a survey to gather objective data and information shown to influence career choices. Applicants interviewing in our three primary care programs completed the survey. RESULTS: Pediatric applicants were more likely to be women and to choose their career in the 2nd year of medical school. Medicine/Pediatrics applicants had the highest interest in practicing primary care and in pursuing an academic career. However, they had the smallest number of role models. The average education debt was the same. CONCLUSION: Differences in applicants applying to primary care programs may be used to target particular applicants and to counsel medical students on career choice.

Adult↗

PubMed2002

Epidural application of nucleus pulposus enhances nociresponses of rat dorsal horn neurons.

STUDY DESIGN: An electrophysiologic study to examine responses of dorsal horn neurons in the rat L5 spinal cord to noxious stimuli after disc herniation or application of the nucleus pulposus to the L5 nerve root. OBJECTIVES: To investigate the pathogenic role of nucleus pulposus in the neural mechanism underlying sciatica and low back pain. SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA: Application of the nucleus pulposus to the lumbar nerve root induced morphologic, vascular, and functional changes in the nerve root, suggesting that some factors in the nucleus pulposus may be implicated in the pathogenesis of chronic changes. However, it has not been studied whether the epidural application of nucleus pulposus enhances nociresponses of pain-processing neurons in the superficial dorsal horn of the spinal cord. METHODS: Extracellular recordings were made from the L5 dorsal horn neurons in 20 Wistar rats. The wide-dynamic-range (WDR) neurons activated by electric stimulation of the ipsilateral footpad of hindpaw were selected, and their responses to noxious and innocuous stimulation were examined after L5-L6 disc herniation onto the L5 nerve root (Group A) and application of the autologous nucleus pulposus (Group B) or fat tissues (Groups C and D). RESULTS: The herniation of the nucleus pulposus (Group A) and application of the autologous nucleus pulposus (Group B) to the nerve root remarkably enhanced responses of WDR neurons to noxious stimuli for hours, whereas application of fat tissue scarcely enhanced nociresponses (Groups C and D). CONCLUSIONS: Results suggest that somewhat pathogenic factors in the nucleus pulposus may have a crucial role in the induction of hyperalgesia. This may help to elucidate the reason why a severe pain is sometimes induced without a visually identified protrusion.

Action Potentials↗

PubMed2002

Local application of disc-related cytokines on spinal nerve roots.

STUDY DESIGN: To analyze the effects of tumor necrosis factor-alpha, interleukin-1beta, and interferon-gamma on cauda equina function and to define if any of these cytokines could induce nerve root dysfunction comparable with the situation with application of nucleus pulposus. SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA: Proinflammatory cytokines derived from the intervertebral disc have been suggested to mediate the nucleus pulposus-induced nerve root injury following local application of nucleus pulposus. However, it is not known if such cytokines may induce similar injury if applied separately. METHODS: A total of 29 pigs were used. Nucleus pulposus was harvested from lumbar discs and applied to the sacrococcygeal cauda equina following laminectomy of the first coccygeal vertebra in seven pigs. Five pigs received 1.66 microg of tumor necrosis factor-alpha, five pigs received 0.85 microg of interleukin-1beta, and five pigs received 1.66 microg of interferon-gamma. Seven pigs received autologous fat for control. Nerve conduction velocity was studied by local electrical stimulation and recordings in the tail muscles 7 days after the application. RESULTS: Application of nucleus pulposus and fat induced similar effects as seen in previous studies, with normal nerve conduction velocity for fat and a significant reduction for nucleus pulposus. Application of both interleukin-1beta and IFN-gamma induced slight reductions of nerve conduction velocity compared with fat, but they were not statistically significant. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha, however, induced a reduction of the velocity that was even more pronounced than for nucleus pulposus. CONCLUSION: Based on previous observations and the data of the present study, one may conclude that tumor necrosis factor-alpha from nucleus pulposus cells seems to be intimately involved with the basic pathophysiologic events leading to both nerve root dysfunction and pain after local, epidural application of nucleus pulposus. One may therefore also suspect that pharmacologic inhibition of tumor necrosis factor-alpha may at least theoretically be considered in the clinical situation with disc herniation and sciatica.

Action Potentials↗

PubMed2005

Sodium hydroxide chemical matricectomy for the treatment of ingrown toenails: comparison of three different application periods.

OBJECTIVE: Sodium hydroxide matricectomy is a successful method for the treatment of ingrown toenails. This study was designed to evaluate the optimal sodium hydroxide application period providing high success rates with minimal postoperative morbidity. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Sixty-six patients with 225 ingrown nail edges were treated in three groups receiving 30-second, 1-minute, and 2-minute applications of sodium hydroxide. Each patient was reviewed postoperatively for pain, drainage, and tissue damage. The median long-term follow-up period was 14 months. RESULTS: The success rate of the therapy was 70.9% in the first group, 92.7% in the second group, and 94.4% in the third group. In all groups, about half of the patients experienced minimal pain within 48 hours following the operation, but only in the third group, 20% of the patients had minimal pain, which continued about 1 week. Drainage and tissue damage were minimal or mild in all groups and disappeared within 3 weeks in the first and second groups but were prolonged to 6 weeks in the third group. CONCLUSION: The success rate of 30-second application is significantly lower than 1-minute and 2-minute applications. Although the success rates of the latter two procedures are similar, the prolonged healing time is the disadvantage of the 2-minute application. We conclude that 1-minute application of 10% sodium hydroxide is simple, safe, and highly effective for the treatment of ingrown nails.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2002

Long-term effects of simultaneous subconjunctival and subscleral mitomycin C application in repeat trabeculectomy.

PURPOSE: To assess the efficacy and safety of simultaneous mitomycin C application under conjunctival and scleral flaps in patients with repeat trabeculectomy. METHODS: A total of 44 patients (44 eyes) with previous failed filtering surgery were randomized to one of two groups. The both-flaps group comprised 22 patients (22 eyes) with trabeculectomy and intraoperative mitomycin C application under conjunctival and scleral flaps, whereas the subconjunctival group comprised 22 patients (22 eyes) with subconjunctival application of mitomycin C. Particular attention was paid to intraocular pressure, postoperative medications, visual acuity, filtering bleb appearance, and complications. The mean follow-up time was 38.18 +/- 12.48 months. RESULTS: The mean preoperative intraocular pressure decreased from 39.1 +/- 7.3 mm Hg to the postoperative level of 15.6 +/- 4.8 mm Hg in the both-flaps group (P = 0.014), and from 39.4 +/- 8.4 to 18.7 +/- 5.8 mm Hg in the subconjunctival group (P = 0.018). There was a statistically significant difference in intraocular pressure at all follow-up times, except at 1 week and 1 month postoperatively. Kaplan-Meier survival analysis showed there was no significant difference in total success rate (complete plus qualified success) between the two groups (P = 0.622, log-rank test). However, the two survival curves for the complete success subgroups (without additional medications) confirmed that mitomycin C applications under both flaps had a higher success rate than subconjunctival application (P = 0.043, log-rank test). No statistically significant difference in medications was present between the two groups, and no severe complications developed in either group. CONCLUSIONS: Trabeculectomy augmented with mitomycin C application at both sites could produce a greater lowering of intraocular pressure with low incidence of postoperative complications, and could provide an increased chance of long-term success. The procedure is effective and safe in patients with repeat trabeculectomy.

Adult↗

PubMed2006

Changes in pain behavior and histologic changes caused by application of tumor necrosis factor-alpha to the dorsal root ganglion in rats.

STUDY DESIGN: Histologic changes in the dorsal root ganglion (DRG) and the nociceptive stimulation thresholds were studied in rats. OBJECTIVE: To examine the effects of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF) with special reference to pain behavior and histology of the DRG. SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA: Recently, it was reported that local application of nucleus pulposus induces a characteristic tissue reaction at the surface of the DRG. However, to our knowledge, there have been no previous reports about the relationship between the histologic changes and pain behavior caused by cytokines. METHODS: Recombinant TNF was applied to the L4 DRG. Mechanical and thermal nociceptive thresholds were tested. The L4 DRG was sectioned and observed by light microscopy. RESULTS: After the application of 5 ng/microL TNF, significant differences were observed in mechanical and thermal stimulation thresholds. At the site of application of TNF, a characteristic a semilunar-shaped enlargement was observed. The average width of the part was significantly larger in the 5 ng/microL TNF application, as compared to the 0.5-ng/microL TNF application. CONCLUSIONS: The higher concentration of TNF used induced allodynia and hyperalgesia responses. Because the region showing the histologic changes was significantly larger after application of the higher concentration of TNF, the reaction of the DRG may be related to pain.

Administration, Topical↗

PubMed2002

Applications of the Cambridge Structural Database in organic chemistry and crystal chemistry.

The Cambridge Structural Database (CSD) and its associated software systems have formed the basis for more than 800 research applications in structural chemistry, crystallography and the life sciences. Relevant references, dating from the mid-1970s, and brief synopses of these papers are collected in a database, DBUse, which is freely available via the CCDC website. This database has been used to review research applications of the CSD in organic chemistry, including supramolecular applications, and in organic crystal chemistry. The review concentrates on applications that have been published since 1990 and covers a wide range of topics, including structure correlation, conformational analysis, hydrogen bonding and other intermolecular interactions, studies of crystal packing, extended structural motifs, crystal engineering and polymorphism, and crystal structure prediction. Applications of CSD information in studies of crystal structure precision, the determination of crystal structures from powder diffraction data, together with applications in chemical informatics, are also discussed.

Journal Article↗

PubMed1999

Arrays of multielement ultrasound applicators for interstitial hyperthermia.

Arrays of multielement ultrasound applicators for interstitial hyperthermia have been developed and tested both in vitro and in vivo. The system includes multielement applicators, a 64 channel RF driving unit, a power measuring unit, a 112 channel multisensor temperature measuring unit, and a water cooling unit. Ninety-five arrays of single-element and nine arrays of three-element ultrasound applicators were designed, built, and characterized by measuring transducer efficiency and ultrasound field distribution. Improved uniformity in the azimuthal direction was achieved by using multiple driving frequencies. In addition, production of ultrasound in a desired sector of the transducer was possible by selecting a suitable frequency. Both in vitro and in vivo experiments showed that 92% of monitored temperature points within the target volume of 30 mm x 30 mm x 35 mm achieved a therapeutic temperature rise (above 5 degrees C) when an array of five three-element applicators were used. These results indicated that the arrays of multielement ultrasound applicators have distinct advantages over present interstitial hyperthermia modalities in terms of the capability to control the temperature distribution with a large catheter spacing. As a conclusion, the feasibility of a practical arrays of multielement ultrasound applicators for interstitial hyperthermia was demonstrated.

Animals↗

PubMed2002

Contact flexible microstrip applicators (CFMA) in a range from microwaves up to short waves.

Contact flexible microstrip applicator (CFMA) is a new light-weight microstrip applicator type for superficial and deep local hyperthermia. Typical specimens are developed for operation at frequencies of 434, 70, 40, and 27 MHz. The main common features of CFMA, namely, their flexibility and light weight, as well as their aperture dimensions slightly depend on the operating frequency. Two antenna types are used in CFMAs: inductive antennas with a radiating plane electrical dipole at microwaves, and coplanar capacitive antennas, providing depression of the normal component of the electrical field in the very high-frequency (VHF) and high-frequency (HF) range. The flexibility of the applicators enables one to conform them with curved surfaces. In a bent state of the applicators there arises a focusing effect of energy deposition in deeper located tissues due to linear polarization of the irradiated electromagnetic (EM) field, inherent in CFMA. All CFMA are integrated with silicon water boluses which serve as a matching element, so as a skin cooling agent. Due to this and to the predominance of the tangential electrical component in the radiated EM field, no fat overheating effects are noticed, as a rule. The aperture of the developed applicators overlap the range 160-630 cm2 providing effective heating field sizes (EFSs) 64-400 cm2, respectively. The most bulky CFMAs with an aperture of (21 x 29) cm2 operating at the frequency of 434 MHz weigh 0.8 kg and 2.5 kg at 27 MHz. Phenomenological analysis of the radiating systems, as well as experimental evaluation of the applicators are presented. CFMAs operating at frequencies of 434 and 40 MHz are used in clinical practice. CFMA at 70 and 27 MHz are subjected to laboratory clinical investigations.

Electric Impedance↗

PubMed2005

Pharmacokinetics of 0.1% tacrolimus ointment after first and repeated application to adults with moderate to severe atopic dermatitis.

The systemic exposure to tacrolimus after first and repeated application of 0.1% tacrolimus ointment was investigated in 32 adults with moderate to severe atopic dermatitis. Patients were allocated to treatment groups according to the size of the affected area to be treated: Group 1</=3000 cm(2) (N=11); Group 2>3000 cm(2)</=6000 cm(2) (N=12); Group 3>6000 cm(2)</=10,000 cm(2) (N=9). Ointment was applied twice daily for 13 d and once daily on Day 14; the size of application area remained the same irrespective of healing. Blood samples were collected on Days 1 (first application), 4, and 14 (last application) and analyzed by a validated HPLC-MS/MS method. Systemic exposure to tacrolimus was generally low with 96% of blood samples assayed containing concentrations below 1 ng per mL and 23% of samples below the lower limit of quantification (0.025 ng per mL). Peak concentrations after first ointment application were </=2.8 ng per mL, and the mean area under the concentration-time curve between 0 and 12 h using the trapezoidal rule (AUC(0-12)) values were 1.1, 1.6, and 4.8 ng h per mL for Groups 1, 2, and 3, respectively. The corresponding mean values on Day 14 were similar indicating negligible systemic accumulation of tacrolimus after repeated ointment applications. Both the rate and extent of topical absorption decreased as the skin lesions healed.

Administration, Cutaneous↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Modulation of the cell kinetics of pig skin by the topical application of evening primrose oil or Lioxasol.

The daily topical application of two compounds, a cream containing 10% evening primrose oil (EPO) and Lioxasol (a compound used clinically to treat radiation burns), resulted in increased cell proliferative activity in the skin of female Large White pigs. The effect was most pronounced in the case of the EPO based cream, and was comparable in magnitude with that observed in a previous study on pig skin using orally administered EPO. There was an increase in the size of the rete pegs in the epidermis by 6 weeks after the start of application of the EPO cream. However, this did not translate into an increase in the total thickness of the viable epidermis (excluding the stratum corneum) due to a reduction in the density of rete pegs, from 2 weeks after treatment. Lioxasol had no overall effect on the size of the rete pegs. The labelling index (LI) of cells in the basal layer of the epidermis of pigs receiving a daily topical application of EPO increased progressively with time from the start of application. The LI was maximal (17.9 +/- 2.4%) at the end of the observation period (8 weeks) at which time it was a factor of approximately 2 higher than in the basal layer prior to treatment. A considerably less marked increase in the LI of the basal layer was seen after the application of Lioxasol. The overall increase was approximately 20%, relative to the LI in the untreated epidermis. Labelled cell nuclei were also counted in the papillary dermis. After the application of the EPO cream, no significant increase in the number of labelled cells was observed until week 8, at which time values were approximately twice those in untreated skin. In Lioxasol treated skin the effect on the numbers of labelled cells in the papillary dermis was more immediate, with a approximately 60% increase at 2 weeks. This enhanced level of labelling was maintained until the end of the observation period of 10 weeks. Studies on the cell kinetics of the skin using the alcohol component of the Lioxasol preparation suggested that alcohol rather than Lioxasol was the most significant ingredient. It was concluded that the EPO cream merited further evaluation as a potential modulator of skin response to ionizing radiation.

Administration, Topical↗

PubMed2005

A national study on the residential impact of biological aerosols from the land application of biosolids.

AIMS: The purpose of this study was to evaluate the community risk of infection from bioaerosols to residents living near biosolids land application sites. METHODS AND RESULTS: Approximately 350 aerosol samples from 10 sites located throughout the USA were collected via the use of six SKC Biosamplers. Downwind aerosol samples from biosolids loading, unloading, land application and background operations were collected from all sites. All samples were analysed for the presence of HPC bacteria, total coliform bacteria, Escherichia coli, Clostridium perfringens, coliphage, enteroviruses, hepatitis A virus and norovirus. Total coliforms, E. coli, C. perfringens and coliphage were not detected with great frequency from any sites, however, biosolids loading operations resulted in the largest concentrations of these aerosolized microbial indicators. Microbial risk analyses were conducted on loading and land application operations and their subsequent residential exposures determined. CONCLUSIONS: The greatest annual risks of infection occurred during loading operations, and resulted in a 4 x 10(-4) chance of infection from inhalation of coxsackievirus A21. Land application of biosolids resulted in risks that were <2 x 10(-4) from inhalation of coxsackievirus A21. Overall bioaerosol exposure from biosolids operations poses little community risk based on this study. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: This study evaluated the overall incidence of aerosolized micro-organisms from the land application of biosolids and subsequently determined that microbial risks of infection were low for residents close to biosolids application sites.

Aerosols↗

PubMed1996

A self-medicating applicator for control of ticks on deer.

A self-medicating applicator for killing ticks on deer and domestic ungulates by passive transfer of acaricides during feeding is described. The applicator consists of a barrel divided into a food bin (above) and a sealed self-contained acaricide reservoir (below) with a vertical, centrally-located ceramic column that extends from the reservoir into the food bin. Acaricide is drawn up the column from the sealed reservoir by absorption. Animals attracted to the food in the device acquire the acaricide during feeding when they contact the uppermost portion of the column. White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) readily utilize the applicator in penned and natural conditions. In a field study, examination of hunter-killed deer demonstrated that animals from a treated site were infested with many fewer Ixodes scapularis (3.4 +/- 1.1) than those from a control site (10.8 +/- 3.0). Chromatographic analysis of hair samples revealed traces of permethrin on three of the four animals examined, suggesting use of applicators by these deer. In a study using penned goats (Capra hircus) infested with Amblyomma americanum ticks, treatment efficacy reached 86.4% within 4 days of exposure to the applicators. Visual observations confirmed that all animals used the applicators. Gas chromatographic analysis of goat hair samples indicated that permethrin was detectable on all of the treated animals exposed to the device.

Animals↗

PubMed2004

Recrystallization in different sunscreen formulations after cutaneous application.

BACKGROUND: Data on the structure of sunscreens prior to and after application to the skin and the possible impact of these factors on their efficacy are still scant. AIMS: The microscopic structure of several commercial sunscreen products containing benzophenone-3 (BP-3) was analysed under a light microscope, prior to and 2 h after application of the products to the skin, and compared with various control preparations with or without BP-3. METHODS: All tested formulations were mounted on microscope slides, viewed under a light microscope and photographed. Samples were taken directly from original packages or from freshly prepared prescription formulations. Two hours after application to the skin, the samples were taken and processed for microscopy. RESULTS: In some commercial sunscreens numerous crystals were formed upon cutaneous application, whereas others contained crystals both prior to and after epicutaneous application. A single commercial product (a lamellar ambiphyl emulsion, SPF28) retained its regular structure throughout the study. Control preparations with or without BP-3 and/or octyl methoxycinnamate contained crystals after cutaneous application. CONCLUSIONS: Ingredients, most probably BP-3, in many commercial sunscreens are prone to recrystallization while on the skin which might interfere with their UV light-absorbing function.

Journal Article↗

PubMed2004

Sunscreen application at the beach.

BACKGROUND: The sun protection factor (SPF) of sunscreens is determined after application of a standard amount. The European Cosmetic Toiletry and Perfumery Association (COLIPA) standard amount is 2 mg/cm(2). Real-life application of sunscreen is probably less than this. AIM: To determine the amount of sunscreen present on the skin of people at the beach. METHODS: Volunteers at the beach were selected randomly and were not aware of being tested for the adequacy of their sunscreen application. All volunteers had applied sunscreen. Application had been more than 30 min before testing (sometimes up to 4 h earlier). The amounts of sunscreen applied to different body sites were determined quantitatively by tape stripping. Actual amounts of sunscreen applied were compared with the COLIPA standard. Also, sunscreen containing a fluorescent dye was applied to the skin of volunteers in a laboratory setting. The distribution of sunscreen application was visualized by UVA photography in a darkened room. RESULTS: Sixty volunteers, 33 males and 27 females, aged 17-68 years (median 32 years), were recruited at the beach. Sunscreen coverage was inadequate at all body sites. Coverage at various body sites differed greatly. Most volunteers had applied 10% or less of the COLIPA standard amount to all body sites assessed. The best protected areas were the upper arm and décolleté but, even in these areas, most volunteers had only applied 10% of the COLIPA standard amount. The worst protected areas were the ears and top of the feet. The back was typically badly protected if treated by the volunteers themselves. The back was better protected if another person had applied the sunscreen. In the laboratory, the fluorescent dye-containing sunscreen showed the same pattern of sunscreen application as at the beach. CONCLUSIONS: In real life, at the beach, very little sunscreen remains present on the skin.

Journal Article↗