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PubMed2003

Camel trypanosomosis in Morocco. 2. A pilot disease control trial.

A first epidemiological study on camel trypanosomosis was conducted in 1997 and 1998 in five Moroccan Saharan provinces. It revealed two major foci at Merzouga (Tafilalet province) and Zagora (Ouarzazate province) where tour camel seroprevalences were 35.4 and 43.3%, respectively, for each region. The first area was chosen in the present study as a pilot region for a control program based on epidemiological data with the aim of evaluating the efficiency of the trial in terms of seroconversion, incidence and health condition. After finding the endemic focus at Merzouga, four other field studies were organised in this area, at 4-month intervals, in order, firstly, to control the camel reservoir by treating all the camels found in the region during the visit using melarsomine (Cymelarsan, Rhône-Mérieux, the only trypanocide registered in Morocco), and, secondly, to collect blood samples for studying temporal changes in seroprevalence as well as in anaemia rate. All the 291 tour camels of the area, that were present in at least one of the field visits were examined and included in the trial. Among them, 162 were treated once, 84 twice and 41 three times. A total of 676 serum samples were collected from these camels. At the end of the trial--1 year later--seroprevalence had dropped from 58% (May 1998) to 19% and the mean Ab-ELISA value had decreased from 0.52 (before treatment) to 0.12 (which is below the threshold level), after the third campaign. The haematocrit of the animals was also slightly improved, indicating that trypanosomosis was a major cause, but it was not the only incriminated factor. A seasonal effect was observed. The overall seroprevalence was reduced between spring 1999 and summer 1999, without treatment, whereas a negative effect was recorded on packed cell volume, more camels being found anaemic in summer than in spring. The application of these strategic treatments was associated with a large reduction in the seroprevalence of trypanosomosis, but there was no complete eradication because of the continual exchange of animals from other foci such that of Zagora. The overall seroconversion after 1 year reached 55% and no post-treatment complication was recorded, whereas the incidence due to new infections approached 4.3%. Moreover, several factors like the unusual way of life of the dromedaries, including stress, excessive work, overcrowding and continual contact with other animals coming from other infected regions contribute to the persistence of the disease.

Animals↗

PubMed1998

Prevalence of cystic echinococcosis in camels (Camelus dromedarius) in Libya.

In an abattoir study, 514 camels, slaughtered for meat production in different areas of northern Libya were examined for the presence of cystic echinococcosis (CE). In addition, 367 sheep and 184 goats were examined. The overall prevalence of infection with CE was 48% in camels, 15.8% in sheep and 3.8% in goats. The infection rate, number and size of cysts were significantly higher in older camels. In six city abattoirs across northern Libya, i.e. Zawia, Tripoli, El-Khumes, Mesurata, Sirt and Benghazi, the prevalence rate of infection in camels ranged from 38.7% to 55.2%, in comparison with sheep and goat rates which were between 0% and 37.9% and 0% and 8.2%, respectively. In camels, the lungs were the most frequently infected organs (85.4%) with liver cysts occurring at a significantly lower rate (33%). In contrast, the liver was the predominant infected site with prevalence values of 86% and 100% in sheep and goats, respectively. More than 90% of camel hydatid cysts were fertile. The possible role of camels in the transmission of CE in Libya is discussed.

Age Distribution↗

PubMed2005

Community perceptions of important camel diseases in Lapur Division of Turkana District, Kenya.

This paper presents the results of a study conducted in Lapur Division of Turkana District, Kenya, to estimate the incidence and mortality of camel trypanosomosis using participatory methods. Four livestock camps ('adakars') were conveniently selected for the study. Four informant groups comprising 6 8 key persons were used for the participatory exercises. The camel diseases identified by the pastoralists in their order of importance according to annual incidence were: trypanosomosis (11.4%); mange (10.8%); tick infestation (7.9%); haemorrhagic septicaemia (7.7%); and non-specific diarrhoea (7.6%). Almost half (49.3%) of the camel population suffered from at least one disease over the previous year. The annual incidence and mortality rates of trypanosomosis were estimated at 15%, and 9.9%, in adult camels and 6.9% and 5.2%, in young camels, respectively. There was a seasonal occurrence of trypanosomosis, with most cases reported in the dry season. The prevalence levels of the disease reportedly declined from about 100%, in 1978 to an almost stable state of about 15% in 2002. This study revealed that camel trypanosomosis is still an important disease in Turkana District, exacting a heavy toll in terms of morbidity and mortality. The economic losses due to the disease were likely to have been great owing to the central role the camel plays in this arid district of Kenya.

Age Factors↗

PubMed2001

Comparative pharmacokinetics of theophylline in camels (Camelus dromedarius) and goats (Caprus hircus).

A comparative randomized crossover study was conducted to determine the pharmacokinetics of theophylline in male and female camels (Camelus dromedarius) and goats (Caprus hircus). Theophylline is an established 'probe drug' to evaluate the drug metabolizing enzyme activity of animals. It was administered by the intravenous (i.v.) route and then intramuscularly (i.m.) at a dose of 2 mg/kg. The concentration of the drug in plasma was measured using a high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) technique on samples collected at frequent intervals after administration. Following i.v. injection, the overall elimination rate constant (lambda z,) in goats was 0.006 +/- 0.00076/min and in camels was 0.0046 +/- 0.0008/min (P < 0.01). The elimination half-life (t 1/2 lambda z) in goats (112 .7 min) was lower than in camels (154.7 min) (P < 0.01). The apparent volume of distribution (Vz) and the total body clearance (Cl) in goats were 1440.1 +/- 166.6 ml/kg and 8.9 +/- 1.4 ml/min/kg, respectively. The corresponding values in camels were 1720.3 +/- 345.3 ml/kg and 6.1 +/- 1.0 ml/min/kg, respectively. After i.m. administration, theophylline reached a peak plasma concentration (Cmax) of 1.8 +/- 0.1 and 1.7 +/- 0.2 microg/ml at a post-injection time (Tmax) of 67.5 +/- 8.6 and 122.3 +/- 6.7 min in goats and camels, respectively. The mean bioavailability (T) in both goats and camels was 0.9 +/- 0.2. The above data suggest that camels eliminate theophylline at a slower rate than goats.

Animals↗

PubMed2002

Investigation of factors affecting pregnancy rate after embryo transfer in the dromedary camel.

The uteri of 36 adult dromedary camels were flushed non-surgically three times each with 90-120 mL of embryo flushing medium 7 days after ovulation. A total of 242 embryos were recovered, of which 139 were transferred non-surgically to recipient camels that were either at different levels of synchrony with respect to the Day 7 donor (+1 to -3 days; n = 58), or were at Day 6 after ovulation, but received one of the following treatments: (i) none (controls, n = 15); (ii) 150 mg progesterone-in-oil injected intramuscularly once daily during Days 5-20 after ovulation inclusive (n = 16); (iii) 500 mg flunixin meglumine given intravenously 15 min before transfer of the embryo (n = 6); (iv) 20 microg of the gonadotrophin-releasing hormone (GnRH) analogue buserelin given on Day 5 after ovulation (n = 12); or (v) the embryo was cooled to 4 degrees C and held at this temperature in an insulated container for 24 h before being transferred (n = 32). Jugular vein blood samples, taken daily from all the recipient camels during Days 0-20 after ovulation, were assayed for progesterone concentration and closely timed serial samples taken from the camels receiving flunixin meglumine or GnRH were assayed for 13,14-dihydro-15-keto prostaglandin F2alpha (PGFM) or oestradiol concentrations. The pregnancy rate increased to a maximum of 67% when ovulation in the recipient was negatively synchronized to have occurred 1 day behind that in the donor, and it fell dramatically when the level of asynchrony between recipient and donor increased to +1 (9%) or -3 (10%) days. It was not improved by daily injections of progesterone (44%), flunixin meglumine given before transfer (16%), or GnRH given on Day 5 (33%). Of the 32 embryos that were cooled to 4 degrees C before being transferred to Day 6 recipients, 20 resulted in pregnancies (63%) to give a success rate similar to that attained with the control fresh embryos (67%). Serum progesterone concentrations in the recipients increased to a mean +/- SEM of 2.6 +/- 0.8 ng mL(-1) by Day 8 after ovulation and, in those that were pregnant, levels remained elevated at 3-5 ng mL(-1) for the remainder of the sampling period; in non-pregnant recipients the concentrations declined to <1 ng mL(-1) by Day 11. Plasma PGFM concentrations in the flunixin meglumine-treated camels remained low (40-90 pg mL(-1)) compared with those in the untreated control camels, in which peak values of around 180 pg mL(-1) were reached within 10 min after transfer after which a steady decline occurred until resting concentrations of 90-100 pg mL(-1) were reached by 110 min after transfer. Treatment with GnRH on Day 5 after ovulation produced a transitory increase in serum oestradiol-17beta concentrations for 24 h. However, from Day 8, oestradiol concentrations in both the GnRH-treated and the untreated camels increased steadily to reach 2.5-3.5 pg mL(-1) by Day 12.

Animals↗

PubMed1995

Antipyrine disposition in the dehydrated camel.

In the present study the effects of water deprivation in the camel (Camelus dromedarius) on the pharmacokinetic profile of antipyrine were assessed. A cross-over design was used. The pharmacokinetics of antipyrine in adult and young camels were compared. Antipyrine was administered intravenously to young and adult female camels when water was available ad libitum and to the adult camels after 14 days of dehydration. The elimination half-life of antipyrine in watered adult camels was 136.5 +/- 16.7 min. The half-life of elimination and the mean residence time of antipyrine were significantly prolonged following dehydration. The observed effects of water deprivation were not a function of age, as the pharmacokinetic profile of antipyrine in young camels was similar to that of the adults, but more likely due to the changes in oxidative metabolic capacity of the liver as a result of a reduced general metabolism. The results of the present study also show that the intrinsic clearance of antipyrine is proportional to the camel's body weight, as previously shown for other mammalian species.

Aging↗

PubMed1995

Lidocaine elimination and monoethylglycinexylidide formation in the dehydrated camel.

The elimination kinetics and the formation of the monoethylglycinexylidide (MEGX), a major metabolite of lidocaine, were studied in camels deprived of water for 14 days. The study was conducted on four camels in a crossover design. Lidocaine was administered intravenously at a dose of 1 mg/kg to adult female camels when water was given ad libitum (stage 1) and to the same camels after 14 days of dehydration. Blood samples were taken up to 6 h after dosing. Serum lidocaine and MEGX levels were analysed by polarization fluorescence immunoassay. The elimination profiles of lidocaine and the formation of the metabolite MEGX in the two phases of the study were essentially identical. No difference in any pharmacokinetic parameter was noticed between normally hydrated and water-deprived camels. It is thus concluded that dehydration does not affect the cytochrome P450 isozymes involved in degradation of lidocaine to MEGX nor does it affect the hepatic blood flow, which is a major determinant in the clearance of lidocaine. The very low clearance of lidocaine in the camel in comparison with other ruminant or monogastric mammals may be associated with the camel's ability to survive drought in the desert.

Anesthetics, Local↗

PubMed1986

A camel milk whey protein rich in half-cystine. Primary structure, assessment of variations, internal repeat patterns, and relationships with neurophysin and other active polypeptides.

The amino acid sequence of a recently isolated camel milk protein rich in half-cystine has been determined by peptide analyses. The 117-residue protein has 16 half-cystine residues, concluded to correspond to disulfide bridges and suggesting a tight conformation of the molecule. Comparisons of the structure with those of other proteins reveal several interesting relationships. The camel protein is clearly homologous with a previously reported rat whey phosphoprotein of possible importance for mammary gland growth regulation, and with a mouse protein of probable relationship to neurophysins. The camel, rat and mouse proteins may represent species variants from a rapidly evolving gene. Residue identities in pairwise comparisons are 40% for the camel/rat proteins and 33% for the camel/mouse proteins, with 38 positions conserved in all three forms. The camel protein also reveals an internal repeat pattern similar to that for the other two proteins. The homology between the three milk whey proteins has wide implications for further relationships. Thus, previously noticed similarities, involving either of the milk proteins, include limited similarities to casein phosphorylation sites for the camel protein, to neurophysins in repeat and half-cystine patterns for the mouse and rat proteins, and to an antiprotease for the rat protein. These similarities are reinforced by the camel protein structure and the recognition of the three whey proteins as related. Finally a few superficial similarities with the insulin family of peptides and with some other peptides of biological importance are noticed. Combined, the results relate the camel protein in a family of whey proteins, and extend suggestions of relationships with some binding proteins.

Amino Acid Sequence↗

PubMed2004

Characterization of Streptococcus bovis from the rumen of the dromedary camel and Rusa deer.

AIMS: Isolation and characterization of Streptococcus bovis from the dromedary camel and Rusa deer. METHODS AND RESULTS: Bacteria were isolated from the rumen contents of four camels and two deer fed lucerne hay by culturing on the semi-selective medium MRS agar. Based on Gram morphology and RFLP analysis seven isolates, MPR1, MPR2, MPR3, MPR4, MPR5, RD09 and RD11 were selected and putatively identified as Streptococcus. The identity of these isolates was later confirmed by comparative DNA sequence analysis of the 16S rRNA gene with the homologous sequence from S. bovis strains, JB1, C14b1, NCFB2476, SbR1, SbR7 and Sb5, from cattle and sheep, and the Streptococcus equinus strain NCD01037T. The percentage similarity amongst all strains was >99%, confirming the identification of the camel isolates as S. bovis. The strains were further characterized by their ability to utilize a range of carbohydrates, the production of volatile fatty acids (VFA) and lactate and the determination of the doubling time in basal medium 10 supplemented with glucose. All the isolates produced l-lactate as a major fermentation end product, while four of five camel isolates produced VFA. The range of carbohydrates utilized by all the strains tested, including those from cattle and sheep were identical, except that all camel isolates and the deer isolate RD11 were additionally able to utilize arabinose. CONCLUSIONS: Streptococcus bovis was successfully isolated from the rumen of camels and deer, and shown by molecular and biochemical characterization to be almost identical to S. bovis isolates from cattle and sheep. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: Streptococcus bovis is considered a key lactic acid producing bacterium from the gastrointestinal tract of ruminants, and has been implicated as a causative agent of lactic acidosis. This study is the first report of the isolation and characterization of S. bovis from the dromedary camel and Rusa deer, and suggests a major contributive role of this bacterium to fermentative acidosis.

Animals↗

PubMed1992

Food deprivation and refeeding in the camel (Camelus dromedarius).

Camels thrive in arid and semiarid areas, although food and water frequently are scarce. However, the mechanisms enabling camels to withstand food deprivation are poorly understood. In this study four female camels were totally deprived of food for 4 days. Their body weight decreased by 6%. Food deprivation caused no change in total plasma protein concentration in the camel, indicating that no alterations in plasma volume occurred. When the first meal was withheld water intake was unchanged. Next day the camels showed signs of hydration with a decreased plasma Na+ concentration and an increased excretion of diluted urine. In the afternoon water intake decreased. Urine K+ excretion fell the first day and urine volume and Na+ excretion from the third day. No activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) was observed. Plasma and urine urea concentration increased during food deprivation. Plasma glucose concentration and plasma cortisol and thyroxine levels did not change. Body temperature decreased during food deprivation. After refeeding, total plasma proteins increased temporarily by 12%, and a threefold increase in RAAS was seen, implying that both plasma volume and RAAs changed rapidly. Our results show that fluid balance was only slightly affected in the food-deprived camel. We suggest that strategies for the camel to endure food deprivation include maintenance of plasma volume and glucose concentration and a lowering of the body temperature.

Animals↗

PubMed1996

Ciliate protozoa in the forestomach of the dromedary camel, (Camelus dromedarius), in Egypt, with description of a new species.

The composition of ciliates obtained from the forestomachs of eleven dromedary (one-humped) camels in Egypt was examined. As a result, eight genera containing 24 species with 11 forms were identified. Of them, one species was concluded to be new, then described as Dasytricha kabanii n. sp. This new species was clearly distinguished from D. ruminantium, the other species of the genus, by its lack of somatic cilia on the posterior one-fifth of the body surface. Entodinium nanellum and Epidinium ecaudatum f. caudatum were found in all camels examined. Although the percentage composition of respective species varied with the individual camel, the rate of Entodinium spp. was high in general. Total ciliate density in forestomach fluid was 1.9 x 10(5)/ml on average. Ciliate composition in Egyptian camels was similar to that in Bactrian camels, Camelus bactrianus, in China reported previously. However, more Entodinium species were detected from Egyptian camels than from Bactrian camels.

Animals↗

PubMed1992

Serological and bacteriological study of brucellosis in camels in central Saudi Arabia.

Sera from 2,630 apparently normal adult camels (Camelus dromedarius) raised in central Saudi Arabia (Riyadh and Al-Kharj cities) were examined serologically by the Rose Bengal and standard United States of America Brucella plate agglutination tests. The overall seroprevalence of brucellosis in the restricted populations of tested camels was 8%. The seroprevalence of brucellosis among camels raised in small numbers in the backyards of 24 houses in Riyadh and those intensively raised on one large camel farm near Al-Kharj were 4.3% and 8.6% respectively. Fresh milk samples from 100 brucellosis seropositive camels from Riyadh and Al-Kharj were cultured on Brucella-selective media. Brucella melitensis biovars 1 and 2 were isolated and identified from 26 camels. Epidemiologically, brucellosis in camels in central Saudi Arabia appeared to be connected with B. melitensis infection of sheep and goats, and also represents a serious public health risk.

Animals↗

PubMed1998

An outbreak of a mixed infection of Dermatophilus congolensis and Microsporum gypseum in camels (Camelus dromedarius) in Saudi Arabia.

Although both Dermatophilus congolensis and Microsporum gypseum infections have been reported separately in camels, mixed infection involving both agents has not been reported to date. The authors describe a mixed infection of D. congolensis and M. gypseum in camels reared on a dairy farm in Saudi Arabia. A total of 131 out of 559 camels (23.4%) were affected. Forty-eight camels less than one year of age had discrete, circumscribed, crusty, hairless lesions, found in particular on the neck and forelegs. Eighty-three camels of varying ages had extensive hair matting with crusty, hairless lesions, especially on the flanks. Camel calves and young camels demonstrated a relatively greater amount of skin lesions. D. congolensis and M. gypseum were diagnosed by direct microscopy, isolation and histopathology.

Actinomycetales↗

PubMed2003

Purification and partial characterisation of camel milk xanthine oxidoreductase.

Xanthine oxidoreductase (XOR) was purified in the presence of dithiothrietol from camel milk with yields of up to 22.2mg/l that were comparable to those obtained from bovine and human milk sources. On SDS-PAGE, the freshly purified camel milk XOR had a protein flavin (A280/A450) ratio of 5.3 +/- 0.4 and appeared homogenous with a single major band of approximately Mr 145.3 KDa. Surprisingly, in all the batches (n = 8) purified camel milk XOR showed no detectable activity towards xanthine or NADH. The molybdenum content of camel XOR was comparable to human and goat milk enzymes. After resulphuration, camel milk XOR gave a specific activity of 1.1 nmol/min/mg and 13.0 nmol/min/mg enzyme towards pterin (fluorimetric assay) and xanthine (spectrophotometric assay) respectively. This activity was markedly lower than that of human, bovine and goat enzymes obtained under the same conditions. These findings suggest that the molybdo-form of camel enzyme is totally under desulpho inactive form. It is possible that camel neonates are equipped with an enzymic system that reactivates XOR in their gut and consequently generates antibacterial reactive oxygen species.

Animals↗

PubMed2005

Changes in chemical composition of Alxa bactrian camel milk during lactation.

Changes in chemical composition of Alxa bactrian camels reared in Inner Mongolia (China) during lactation were investigated. Colostrum and milk samples from 10 nomadic female camels in their first season of lactation were collected periodically from parturition until 90 d postpartum (PP). The average contents of gross composition were 14.23% protein, 4.44% lactose, 0.27% fat, 0.77% ash, and 20.16% total solids in colostrum at 2 h PP, and the respective mean values were 3.55, 4.24, 5.65, 0.87, and 14.31% for regular milk on d 90. A 15-fold increase was shown in fat content during the first 24 h, whereas a sharp decrease was shown during the first 12 h of lactation in protein, ash, and total solids contents. Variation in lactose content was small (4.24 to 4.71%) throughout the study period. Total N, nonprotein N, casein N, and whey protein N were found to be 2.23, 0.06, 0.86, and 1.31 g/100 mL for the colostrum at 2 h PP; and 0.56, 0.04, 0.45, and 0.07 g/100 mL for the milk at 90 d PP. Percentages of caseins increased steadily, whereas whey proteins declined gradually until 3 mo of lactation. Gas liquid chromatography analysis of milk fat showed that the content of even-numbered saturated fatty acids (C12:0-C18:0) in camel colostrum (2 h to 7 d PP) was lower than that of regular milk (15 to 90 d PP). The predominant saturated fatty acids were C14:0, C16:0, and C18:0, regardless of the stage of lactation. There was a considerable level of polyunsaturated fatty acids (mainly C18:1) in Alxa camel's milk fat. The levels of Ca, P, Na, K, and Cl were 222.58, 153.74, 65.0, 136.5, and 141.1 mg/100 g, respectively, at 2 h PP; the values of the minerals were 154.57, 116.82, 72.0, 191.0, and 152.0 mg/100 g, respectively, for the regular milk on d 90. The levels of vitamins A, C, E, B1, B2, B6, and D were 0.97, 29.60, 1.45, 0.12, 1.24, 0.54 mg/L, and 640 IU/L, respectively, in Alxa camel milk at 90 d PP. Vitamin A and C contents were higher and vitamins E and B1 were lower than those in colostrum. Sodium dodecyl sulfate-PAGE and densitometry results demonstrated that Alxa camel colostrum is rich in immunoglobulins, serum albumin, and 2 unknown fractions, which are reduced in amount (%) within 2 d of lactation. It seems that there is lack of beta-lactoglobulin in Alxa camel milk, whereas casein and -lactalbumin start at a low level and increase gradually until they reach their regular levels in the milk.

Animals↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Mastitis in lactating camels (Camelus dromedarius) in Afar Region, north-eastern Ethiopia.

Quarter milk samples (n = 543) from 152 traditionally managed lactating camels (Camelus dromedarius) in Afar Region, north-eastern Ethiopia were examined to determine the prevalence of camel mastitis and identify its bacterial causes. Out of 152 camels examined, 19 (12.5%) were diagnosed as clinical mastitis cases based on clinical signs and bacteriological examinations. Of the 257 California Mastitis Test (CMT) positive quarter milk samples 162 (63.0%) yielded pathogenic bacteria. A positive correlation was observed between CMT positive results and presence of major pathogens in camel milk samples. The main mastitis pathogens isolated were Staphylococcus aureus, coagulase-negative staphylococci, Streptococcus agalactiae, S. dysgalactiae, and other species of streptococci, Pasteurella haemolytica and E. coli. Results of the present study suggest that mastitis in Afar camels is prevalent, Gram-positive cocci are the major isolates from camel milk samples and the CMT can be used as a screening test for the detection of mastitis in camels.

Animals↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Species-specific polymerase chain reaction amplification of camel (Camelus) DNA extracts.

A sensitive polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method based on amplification of a specific DNA fragment was established for the identification of camel (Camelus) materials. The species-specific primer pair L183/H372 was designed based on the nucleotide sequence of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene, and its specificity was confirmed by amplification of 3 camel (domestic double-humped camel, wild double-humped camel, wild one-humped camel) samples and 11 non-Camelus animal (sheep, goat, pig, chicken, cattle, fish, dog, horse, donkey, deer, and rabbit) materials. An expected 208 base pair fragment was amplified from camel materials; no cross-reactive or additional fragments were generated from other animal materials. Taq I restriction endonuclease digestion of the unpurified PCR product can be used routinely to confirm the camel origin of the amplified sequence.

Animals↗

PubMed1991

Predisposing factors in enterotoxemias of camels (Camelus dromedarius) caused by Clostridium perfringens type A.

C. perfringens type A was isolated from different organs and intestines from breeding and racing camels which died from peracute and acute enterotoxemias in two separate outbreaks. Pathological changes in the digestive tract were mild in breeding camels, and severe in racing camels. A polyvalent clostridial antiserum of bovine origin given intravenously had a life-saving effect on breeding camels, but not on racing camels. In the two outbreaks, fifty percent of the breeding camels were suffering from an acute Trypanosoma evansi infection, and 25% of the racing camels had developed a salmonellosis. It is suggested that both infections played an important role as predisposing factors for the outbreak of C. perfringens enterotoxemias.

Animals↗