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Predictive models of molecular machines involved in Caenorhabditis elegans early embryogenesis.

Although numerous fundamental aspects of development have been uncovered through the study of individual genes and proteins, system-level models are still missing for most developmental processes. The first two cell divisions of Caenorhabditis elegans embryogenesis constitute an ideal test bed for a system-level approach. Early embryogenesis, including processes such as cell division and establishment of cellular polarity, is readily amenable to large-scale functional analysis. A first step toward a system-level understanding is to provide 'first-draft' models both of the molecular assemblies involved and of the functional connections between them. Here we show that such models can be derived from an integrated gene/protein network generated from three different types of functional relationship: protein interaction, expression profiling similarity and phenotypic profiling similarity, as estimated from detailed early embryonic RNA interference phenotypes systematically recorded for hundreds of early embryogenesis genes. The topology of the integrated network suggests that C. elegans early embryogenesis is achieved through coordination of a limited set of molecular machines. We assessed the overall predictive value of such molecular machine models by dynamic localization of ten previously uncharacterized proteins within the living embryo.

Algorithms↗

Cripto-1: a multifunctional modulator during embryogenesis and oncogenesis.

It is increasingly evident that genes known to perform critical roles during early embryogenesis, particularly during stem cell renewal, pluripotentiality and survival, are also expressed during the development of cancer. In this regard, oncogenesis may be considered as the recapitulation of embryogenesis in an inappropriate temporal and spatial manner. The epidermal growth factor-Cripto-1/FRL1/cryptic family of proteins consists of extracellular and cell-associated proteins that have been identified in several vertebrate species. During early embryogenesis, epidermal growth factor-Cripto-1/FRL1/cryptic proteins perform an obligatory role as coreceptors for the transforming growth factor-beta subfamily of proteins, which includes Nodal. Cripto-1 has also been shown to function as a ligand through a Nodal/Alk4-independent signaling pathway that involves binding to glypican-1 and the subsequent activation through src of phosphoinositol-3 kinase/Akt and ras/mitogen-activated protein kinase intracellular pathways. Expression of Cripto-1 is increased in several human cancers and its overexpression is associated with the development of mammary tumors in mice. Here, we review the role of Cripto-1 during embryogenesis, cell migration, invasion and angiogenesis and how these activities may relate to cellular transformation and tumorigenesis. We also briefly discuss evidence suggesting that Cripto-1 may be involved in stem cell maintenance.

Activin Receptors, Type I↗

Dual regulation of a heat shock promoter during embryogenesis: stage-dependent role of heat shock elements.

Transgenic tobacco expression was analysed of chimeric genes with point mutations in the heat shock element (HSE) arrays of a small heat shock protein (sHSP) gene from sunflower: Ha hsp17.7 G4. The promoter was developmentally regulated during zygotic embryogenesis and responded to heat stress in vegetative tissues. Mutations in the HSE affected nucleotides crucial for human heat shock transcription factor 1 (HSF1) binding. They abolished the heat shock response of Ha hsp17.7 G4 and produced expression changes that demonstrated dual regulation of this promoter during embryogenesis. Thus, whereas activation of the chimeric genes during early maturation stages did not require intact HSE, expression at later desiccation stages was reduced by mutations in both the proximal (-57 to -89) and distal (-99 to -121) HSE. In contrast, two point mutations in the proximal HSE that did not severely affect gene expression during zygotic embryogenesis, eliminated the heat shock response of the same chimeric gene in vegetative organs. Therefore, by site-directed mutagenesis, it was possible to separate the heat shock response of Ha hsp17.7 G4 from its developmental regulation. The results indicate the co-existence, in a single promoter, of HSF-dependent and -independent regulation mechanisms that would control sHSP gene expression at different stages during plant embryogenesis.

Base Sequence↗

Localization and identification of phenolic compounds in Theobroma cacao L. somatic embryogenesis.

Cocoa breeders and growers continue to face the problem of high heterogeneity between individuals derived from one progeny. Vegetative propagation by somatic embryogenesis could be a way to increase genetic gains in the field. Somatic embryogenesis in cocoa is difficult and this species is considered as recalcitrant. This study was conducted to investigate the phenolic composition of cocoa flowers (the explants used to achieve somatic embryogenesis) and how it changes during the process, by means of histochemistry and conventional chemical techniques. In flowers, all parts contained polyphenolics but their locations were specific to the organ considered. After placing floral explants in vitro, the polyphenolic content was qualitatively modified and maintained in the calli throughout the culture process. Among the new polyphenolics, the three most abundant were isolated and characterized by 1H- and 13C-NMR. They were hydroxycinnamic acid amides: N-trans-caffeoyl-l-DOPA or clovamide, N-trans-p-coumaroyl-l-tyrosine or deoxiclovamide, and N-trans-caffeoyl-l-tyrosine. The same compounds were found also in fresh, unfermented cocoa beans. The synthesis kinetics for these compounds in calli, under different somatic embryogenesis conditions, revealed a higher concentration under non-embryogenic conditions. Given the antioxidant nature of these compounds, they could reflect the stress status of the tissues.

Cacao↗

Somatic embryogenesis in Arabidopsis thaliana is facilitated by mutations in genes repressing meristematic cell divisions.

Embryogenesis in plants can commence from cells other than the fertilized egg cell. Embryogenesis initiated from somatic cells in vitro is an attractive system for studying early embryonic stages when they are accessible to experimental manipulation. Somatic embryogenesis in Arabidopsis offers the additional advantage that many zygotic embryo mutants can be studied under in vitro conditions. Two systems are available. The first employs immature zygotic embryos as starting material, yielding continuously growing embryogenic cultures in liquid medium. This is possible in at least 11 ecotypes. A second, more efficient and reproducible system, employing the primordia timing mutant (pt allelic to hpt, cop2, and amp1), was established. A significant advantage of the pt mutant is that intact seeds, germinated in 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2, 4-D) containing liquid medium, give rise to stable embryonic cell cultures, circumventing tedious hand dissection of immature zygotic embryos. pt zygotic embryos are first distinguishable from wild type at early heart stage by a broader embryonic shoot apical meristem (SAM). In culture, embryogenic clusters originate from the enlarged SAMs. pt somatic embryos had all characteristic embryo pattern elements seen in zygotic embryos, but with higher and more variable numbers of cells. Embryogenic cell cultures were also established from seedling, of other mutants with enlarged SAMs, such as clavata (clv). pt clv double mutants showed additive effects on SAM size and an even higher frequency of seedlings producing embryogenic cell lines. pt clv double mutant plants had very short fasciated inflorescence stems and additive effects on the number of rosette leaves. This suggests that the PT and CLV genes act in independent pathways that control SAM size. An increased population of noncommitted SAM cells may be responsible for facilitated establishment of somatic embryogenesis in Arabidopsis.

Arabidopsis↗

The epigenetic environment: secondary sex ratio depends on differential survival in embryogenesis.

Live human births are usually more than half male, in spite of excess losses of males throughout fetal development. These observations together demand an excess of males near the beginning of pregnancy greater than that seen at birth. Reductions of the usual excess of males among human live births have widely been considered to represent consequences of untoward circumstances surrounding conception. Repeated competent research efforts have found no evidence for any bias in gametogenesis or fertilization in favour of Y-bearing sperm. Male embryogenesis is faster and more efficient, leaving females in excess among failures before the fetal period. Sex differences in speed and efficiency of embryogenesis, dependent for example on epigenetic differences such as genomic imprinting, produce an excess of males at the transition from embryogenesis to clinical pregnancy, that will survive the male excess of losses throughout the fetal period, to yield an excess of males among live births. Changes in, or mediated by, the epigenetic environment of embryogenesis provide the most plausible prospects for causes of changes in secondary sex ratio.

Embryonic Development↗

Participation of proteasomes in Xenopus embryogenesis.

We examined the effects of various protease substrates on Xenopus laevis embryogenesis. Thirty-three peptidyl-MCA substrates were added to the culture medium in which Xenopus embryos were developing. Five of the 33 substrates were found to inhibit embryogenesis at the early gastrula stage or much earlier ones. These results suggest that proteases that hydrolyze these substrates are involved in embryonic development. We found that the developmental stage of embryos is crucial for these substrates to inhibit their development. We purified a protease that hydrolyzes Pyr-Arg-Thr-Lys-Arg-MCA, a substrate that inhibits embryogenesis, from Xenopus embryos. This protease turned out to be a component of proteasomes. We found that 4 of the 5 substrates that inhibit embryogenesis are among the proteasome substrates. Thus, we concluded that proteasomes play a crucial role in the development of Xenopus embryos. Possibly, various catalytic subunits in proteasomes function independently, in stage-specific manners.

Animals↗

Biochemical effects of juvenile hormone III on the tick, Argas (Persicargas) arboreus (Acari: Argasidae), during embryogenesis.

The biochemical effects of juvenile hormone III (JH III) on developing embryos from treated female Argas (Persicargas) arboreus Kaiser, Hoogstraal and Kohls were examined. Exogenous JH III resulted in a decrease in total proteins (P less than 0.001) only during the first 2 d of embryogenesis. There was no significant difference (P greater than 0.05) between RNA and DNA content in eggs from control and JH III-treated females. No significant difference (P greater than 0.05) was observed between control and JH III eggs in their lipid or phospholipid contents throughout embryogenesis. A total of 14-17 protein bands and 6-8 glycoprotein bands were separated by electrophoresis during embryogenesis of A. arboreus with some differences in mobility ratio between bands from control and JH III eggs. Differences in activity and isozyme patterns of malic acid, lactic acid, glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase, acid phosphatase, and alkaline phosphatase were not observed during embryogenesis of control and JH III-treated A. arboreus. Differences were observed in esterase activity.

Animals↗

The role of arabinogalactan proteins binding to Yariv reagents in the initiation, cell developmental fate, and maintenance of microspore embryogenesis in Brassica napus L. cv. Topas.

Arabinogalactan proteins (AGPs) are extracellular proteoglycans involved in plant growth and development. The addition of beta-D-glucosyl Yariv reagent (betaGlcY), a synthetic phenylglycoside that specifically reacts with AGPs, to the culture medium notably disturbed microspore embryogenesis in a concentration-dependent manner. The initiation of microspore embryogenesis was clearly inhibited by 30 microM betaGlcY and completely inhibited by 50 microM betaGlcY. The transfer of microspore-derived embryos at different developmental stages into NLN6 medium containing 50 microM betaGlcY prohibited their normal development, as approximately 21.24, 43.99, and 59.73%, respectively, of the treated globular-, heart-, and torpedo-stage embryos exhibited numerous root hair-like structures. Both heart-stage and torpedo-stage embryos showed a rapid growth of roots with a large number of clustered root hairs. Some root hair-like structures were also observed on the apical portions of embryos. Microscopy of the treated embryos revealed that the basic patterns of cells at both the radial and apical-basal axes were greatly altered, such that the cells lost their ability to carry out programmed embryogenesis. These results show that the betaGlcY-AGP interaction modulates the developmental fate of embryonic cells, especially epidermal cells, and thereby strongly affects root generation and development. Immunofluorescence microscopy revealed that both JIM8 and JIM13 binding to AGP co-localize with betaGlcY-binding sites. Thus, AGPs binding to betaGlcY, co-localized with Jim8- and Jim13-binding protein, appear to play a crucial role in the initiation of Brassica microspore embryogenesis and the maintenance of cell differentiation during embryonic development. In addition, these proteins may also be involved in the regulation of root generation.

Antibodies, Monoclonal↗

Molecular characterization of putative yolk processing enzymes and their expression during oogenesis and embryogenesis in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss).

Vitellogenin is the major yolk protein precursor in fish, but little is known about its processing pathway in the oocyte, nor about mobilization of yolk proteins during embryogenesis. In this study we cloned three putative yolk processing enzymes; specifically, cathepsin B and L, and lipoprotein lipase (LPL), from the rainbow trout ovary and determined their patterns of gene expression, together with cathepsin D, during oogenesis and embryogenesis using reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction. The approximate sizes of both cathepsin B and cathepsin L transcripts were estimated as 1.7-1.8 kilobases by Northern blot analysis. Cathepsin D mRNA and cathepsin L mRNA were expressed constitutively throughout vitellogenesis and embryogenesis, showing the highest levels of expression at around fertilization. Cathepsin B and LPL were expressed exclusively during oogenesis. Quantitatively, expression of cathepsin D mRNA was higher than cathepsin B, cathepsin L, and LPL mRNA throughout the period studied. The different patterns of expression for these genes during oogenesis and embryogenesis signify specific temporal roles in yolk protein processing.

Amino Acid Sequence↗

Analysis of the rolC promoter region involved in somatic embryogenesis-related activation in carrot cell cultures.

In cell cultures of carrot (Daucus carota L.), somatic embryogenesis can be induced by transferring cells from a medium containing 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) to one devoid of 2,4-D. Previous analysis of transgenic carrot cells containing the 5' non-coding sequence of the Ri plasmid rolC and a structural gene for bacterial beta-glucuronidase (uidA) has shown that the chimeric gene is actively expressed after induction of somatic embryogenesis. In this study, we demonstrate that activation of the rolC promoter is dependent on the process of embryo development but not on the duration of the cell culture in 2,4-D-free medium. We also analyzed the cis region of the rolC promoter that is responsible for somatic embryogenesis-related activation (SERA), namely relatively low beta-glucuronidase (GUS) activity in calli and proembryogenic masses (PEM) and high GUS activity in heart- and torpedo-stage embryos. When the -255-bp region of the rolC gene was used, SERA was retained. Internal deletions within this -255-bp region did not alter SERA by the rolC promoter. Furthermore, when a rolC promoter fragment (-848 to -94 bp) was fused to the cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV) 35S core region (-90 to +6 bp), it conferred relatively low GUS activity in calli and PEM but high GUS activity in heart and torpedo embryos. When -848 to -255-bp or -255- to -94-bp fragments of the rolC promoter were fused to the same CaMV 35S core region, GUS activity patterns were not related to somatic embryogenesis. These results suggest that the combination of several regulatory regions in the rolC promoter may be required for SERA in carrot cell cultures.

Base Sequence↗

Relationship between Merkel cells and nerve endings during embryogenesis in the mouse epidermis.

Close relationships between Merkel cells (MC) and nerve endings (NE) exist in the adult mouse. Because MC may serve as targets for the ingrowth of NE during embryogenesis, the purpose of the present study was to analyze the relationship between MC and NE during embryogenesis. Frozen tissue from whisker pads and backs of NMRI mouse embryos (12-17 d gestational age) were studied by double-labeling indirect immunofluorescence (IIF) with a cytokeratin monoclonal antibody that recognizes MC and with a neurofilament anti-serum. Such an approach allowed the analysis of a large number of MC (up to 5000), thus yielding quantitative data. At day 12 of gestational age, no MC were observed by IIF. From day 13 to 17, the number of MC, as well as their association with NE, progressively increased. On day 13, only 57% of whisker pad MC were NE associated, whereas by day 17, 95% were NE associated. These results were confirmed by electron microscopic (EM) observations. On the back, the same chronologic relationship between MC and NE was observed, but was later in the course of embryogenesis. There was also a time- and zone-dependent increase in MC association with NE in the epidermal zones studied (isthmic, parafollicular, interfollicular). These observations 1) establish the time course of MC and NE contacts during embryogenesis in the mouse epidermis, 2) show that MC are present in the epidermis and appendages before NE reach the epithelium, and 3) support the hypothesis that MC could act as targets for the growing NE.

Animals↗

Ontogenic appearance of MHC class I (B-F) antigens during chicken embryogenesis.

Expression of chicken MHC class I (B-F) antigens during ontogeny was determined by binding of anticlass I antibody and appearance of B-F transcripts by Northern blotting in chicken organs during embryogenesis until 2 weeks after hatching. MHC class I transcripts first become detectable in day 6.5 of embryogenesis. B-F cell-surface expression first becomes detectable in hemopoietic organs by day 10-12 of embryogenesis and somewhat later in nonhemopoietic organs. Flow cytometry analysis of hemopoietic cells throughout embryogenesis revealed B-Fhi and B-Flo cell populations. The percentage of B-F+ cells in spleen and bone marrow decreased around hatching, which could reflect either cell flows in these organs during this period or the sensitivity of hemopoietic cells to hatching stress.

Animals↗

Sequential Development of Cysteine Proteinase Activities and Gene Expression during Somatic Embryogenesis in Carrot.

Three bands of proteinase activity (Rf values of 0.5, 0.6, and 0.7) were detected on activity-stained gels after native gel electrophoresis of carrot (Daucus carota L. cv US-Harumakigosun) suspension cells. After the induction of somatic embryogenesis, one activity band (0.7 band) rapidly disappeared; the 0.6 band was absent at the heart-shaped embryo stage. However, the intensity of the 0.5 band increased during embryogenesis. An additional band (0.25 band) appeared after the torpedo-shaped stage. Three bands (0.25, 0.5, and 0.6) were also detected in zygotic seeds. Two activity bands (0.5 and 0.6) were classified as cysteine proteinases based on sensitivities to N-Ethylmaleimide (NEM) or L-3-trans-Carboxyoxirane-2-Carbonyl-L-Leucyl-Agmatine (E-64). To find candidate genes for the cysteine proteinases, we cloned seven cDNAs encoding putative cysteine proteinases from suspension cells and developing somatic embryos. The expression patterns of the seven genes were categorized into three types (Type A, mRNAs increase concomitantly with somatic embryogenesis; Type B, mRNAs decrease quickly in organized cells; Type C, no significant change in transcript level during somatic embryogenesis).

Cysteine Endopeptidases↗

Indirect somatic embryogenesis in cassava for genetic modification purposes.

In cassava both direct and indirect somatic embryogenesis is described. Direct somatic embryogenesis starts with the culture of leaf explants on Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium supplemented with auxins. Somatic embryos undergo secondary somatic embryogenesis when cultured on the same medium. Indirect somatic embryogenesis is initiated by subculture of directly induced embryogenic tissue on auxin-supplemented medium with Gresshoff and Doy salts and vitamins. A very fine friable embryogenic callus (FEC) is formed after a few rounds of subculture and stringent selection. This FEC is maintained by subculture on auxin supplemented medium. Lowering of the auxin concentration allows the FEC to form mature somatic embryos that develop into plants when transferred to a cytokinin-supplemented medium.

Cell Culture Techniques↗

[Expression of N-deacetylase/N-sulfotransferase (NDST) during early rat embryogenesis].

Fibroblast growth factors (FGFs) are known to be required for embryonic growth, formation, and shaping of many tissues and organs during embryogenesis. Biochemical studies have indicated that heparan sulfate proteoglycans, which are present on most cell surfaces and in extracellular matrices, play essential roles in FGF binding to its receptors and subsequent signal transduction. N-deacetylase/N-sulfotransferases (NDSTs), which catalyze the first modifying step in the biosynthesis of heparan sulfate, are essential enzymes for the biosynthesis of heparan sulfate. The critical roles of heparan sulfate proteoglycan in developmental processes and specific signaling pathways have been illustrated by the identification of mutations in enzymes involved in the biosynthesis of heparan sulfate in Drosophila and mice. However, null mutation analyses of NDST-1 and NDST-2 have not clarified the embryonic regulation of morphogenesis by NDSTs. In the present study, we examined the temporal and spatial expression of NDST-1, and the temporal expression of NDST-2, in early rat embryogenesis, to investigate the role of NDSTs during embryogenesis. The expression pattern of rat NDST-1 appears to colocalize with certain FGFs and FGF receptors, suggesting possible roles of NDST in embryogenesis.

Amidohydrolases↗

The Arabidopsis SOMATIC EMBRYOGENESIS RECEPTOR KINASE 1 gene is expressed in developing ovules and embryos and enhances embryogenic competence in culture.

We report here the isolation of the Arabidopsis SOMATIC EMBRYOGENESIS RECEPTOR-LIKE KINASE 1 (AtSERK1) gene and we demonstrate its role during establishment of somatic embryogenesis in culture. The AtSERK1 gene is highly expressed during embryogenic cell formation in culture and during early embryogenesis. The AtSERK1 gene is first expressed in planta during megasporogenesis in the nucellus [corrected] of developing ovules, in the functional megaspore, and in all cells of the embryo sac up to fertilization. After fertilization, AtSERK1 expression is seen in all cells of the developing embryo until the heart stage. After this stage, AtSERK1 expression is no longer detectable in the embryo or in any part of the developing seed. Low expression is detected in adult vascular tissue. Ectopic expression of the full-length AtSERK1 cDNA under the control of the cauliflower mosaic virus 35S promoter did not result in any altered plant phenotype. However, seedlings that overexpressed the AtSERK1 mRNA exhibited a 3- to 4-fold increase in efficiency for initiation of somatic embryogenesis. Thus, an increased AtSERK1 level is sufficient to confer embryogenic competence in culture.

Arabidopsis↗

The role of cell wall in plant embryogenesis.

This review presents recent data about cell wall involvement in plant embryogenesis. During plant development, the cell wall is subjected to precise regulation. During this process a bidirectional information exchange between the cell wall and the protoplast is observed. The cell wall also mediates in the cell-cell (apoplastic) and cell to cell (symplastic) information flow. Especially some products derived from the hydrolysis of specific cell wall compounds can act as short distance signal transduction molecules during the development. Oligosaccharins are a group of such products. Their activity and sources focused the researchers' attention on the biochemical composition of the cell wall and the activity of some cell wall enzymes. The dramatic influence on the embryo body shape has also the cell wall synthesis machinery, including vesicular secretion pathways. Moreover, the interplay between the turgor pressure and counteracting cell walls and neighbouring cells (in higher organisms) creates the specific mechanical forces influencing the development of the whole plant. We conclude that discovering factors which can influence cell wall physiology and architecture is crucial for a better understanding of plant embryogenesis. In this review we summarize some recent experimental data reporting plant cell wall involvement in embryogenesis, putting special emphasis on somatic embryogenesis.

Cell Wall↗