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A review of the literature concerning heart rate and various forms of heart-rate variability and studies of behavior associated with these variables has been presented. Emphasis has been placed on the apparent discrepancies and inconsistencies reported within the literature as well as major methodological differences which make the integration of the data presented by various researchers almost impossible.
Sex differences in spatial ability may be related to different problem-solving methods. Two spatial tests, Choosing A Path and Witkin's Rod and Frame Test, and related strategy questionnaires were given to 50 male and 50 female adults. Multivariate analyses of variance on the strategy questionnaires were significant. Women were more likely to use concrete and unorganized methods and to give up or skip problems. Spearman correlations between the males' and females' rank orders of strategies were high and significant, so that both similarities and differences between the sexes were demonstrated.
An index of the strength of association between sex and each of two measures of field dependence, the Rod and Frame Test and Embedded Figures Test, was calculated based upon reported significant sex differences on these measures. Median omega2 values based upon 20 rod-and-frame results and 18 embedded-figures results are .11 for the former and .12 for the latter. It appears that gender accounts for less than 15% of the variance in field-dependence scores.
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It has been suggested that field dependence arises out of deficit in left hemisphere function. There are numerous difficulties encountered in the interpretation of the research leading to this proposition. Problems in the establishment of such cause-effect relationships are outlined, and some future avenues for research are suggested.
The objective of this research was to determine if systematic differences occur in the way people ascribe meaning to right and left sides of the human face. Twenty-two faces, bilaterally symmetrical, were constructed from 11 photographs. These left- and right-constructed faces were rated 1 wk. apart by 26 raters on nine bipolar adjective scales selected for the evaluative, potency, and activity dimensions of the semantic differential (Osgood, 1961). Multivariate F tests indicated that on seven of the nine bipolar scales the left- and right-sided faces received significantly different ratings. Left facial constructions were rated as healthier, stronger, harder, more active, more excitable, and in the direction of bad on the good-bad scale. Right facial constructions were rated more sickly, weaker, more feminine, softer, more passive, calmer, and in the good direction on the good-bad scale.
The relationships among perceptual field independence, biological sex, sex-role identity, self-esteem, and intelligence were explored. Tests measuring these variables were administered to 50 male and 50 female volunteers. The results, obtained by standard multiple regression and analysis of covariance procedures, indicate that (a) males are significantly more field-independent than females, (b) regardless of biological sex, subjects with relatively masculine role-identities are more field-independent than subjects with relatively feminine role-identities, (c) self-esteem is not significantly related to perceptual style, and (d) although intelligence has a significant positive relationship to perceptual field independence, intelligence does not account for the sex differential or for the role sex-identification plays in perceptual style.
The relationship between psychological differentiation and performance on three content types (concrete-plausible, concrete-implausible, symbolic) of conditional reasoning tasks was investigated. Using intelligence as a covariate, field-independent subjects (n = 94) in Grade 8 performed significantly better than field-dependent subjects (n = 121) on each type of content. A significant interaction was found. Greater differences between field independent and field-dependent subjects were observed for concrete-implausible and symbolic contents than for concrete-plausible content.
The existence of an illusion of self-tilt in the rod-and-frame test was demonstrated using a magnitude-estimation procedure. Subjects, seated in a tiltable chair, estimated their body tilt after being placed in one of 13 body tilt positions and while viewing a rod-and-frame display. A shift of the apparent body position occurred in the opposite direction of frame tilt. The results are consistent with earlier findings using the method of body and head adjustment.
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To see if there were a significant relationship between the short form of Dees, O'Reilly, and Griffith embedded figures test and playing ability for tennis as measured by tournament rank order, setting the minimum correlation coefficient at .70, from 116 beginning, 37 advanced, and 72 intercollegiate male and female tennis students from 6 universities data were collected by 9 instructors. Spearman and Kendall rank-order correlations and partial correlation indicated that, even though several values were significant, most were not high enough to conclude that tennis players are field independent.
Data were obtained on the Portable Rod-and-Frame Test for a sample of 31 college women. For a test-retest interval of approximately 9 mo. a stability coefficient of .84 was obtained. There was no difference between test and retest means of 2.15 (SD = 1.93) and 2.50 (SD = 2.12), respectively (t30 = 1.65). These findings provide evidence for the intraindividual stability of scores on the portable task.
Witkin's field dependence and Kitton's adaptation-innovation theories are compared and a theoretical overlap of concepts is advanced. This is confirmed by field study despite the confounding elements of spatial ability and extraversion in the former theory for male responses. Women's scores on the Embedded Figures Test differ from those of males, and this finding continues to constitute a difficulty for Witkin's theory and use of his measure.
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The present study investigated the interaction between cognitive style, imagery, and memory. The Tactual Performance Test Location Score from the Halstead-Reitan battery was used as a measure of incidental tactual memory and mental imagery. The Group Embedded Figures Test was used to assess cognitive style. Results for 38 Caucasian males of mean age 49.9 yr. suggest that cognitive style is related to an individual's ability to perform a non-verbal, non-visual memory task. Further, cognitive style may be an important mediating variable influencing intrapersonal behaviors such as non-verbal memory and mental imagery.
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Among the extensive array of studies relating Witkin's construct of psychological differentiation to many psychological functions and variables, none seem to have adequately tested its relationship to creativity, although these two variables have personality traits and development characteristics in common and require similar skills for effective performance. Eighty-five male high school students were separated according to Embedded Figures Test, and the extreme groups tested for creativity by eight factorially pure tests developed by Guilford, and by Schaefer and Anastasi's Biographical Inventory. Statistical procedures included analysis of covariance, analysis of variance, and a matrix of intercorrelations. With intelligence controlled, field-independent persons performed significantly better than field-dependent persons on measures of visualization, spontaneous flexibility, adaptive flexibility, and creativity in mathematics and science but not significantly better on the other six creativity tests.