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PubMed1989

Role of telereceptive and interoceptive (taste) cues in ingestional neophobia in chicks (Gallus domesticus).

Experiment 1 investigated the influence of telereceptive (visual) and interoceptive (taste) cues on neophobia by measuring the intakes of clear water and novel solutions of red-colored water, clear 4.0% vinegar, or red-colored 4.0% vinegar in chicks (Gallus domesticus) on 5 test days. Neophobia was reliably greater the more numerous the novel stimuli in testing (i.e., red-colored vinegar) but was similar in magnitude for novel visual and novel taste cues alone. In Experiment 2 chicks received zero, one, or five preexposures to red-colored water or to clear 4.0% vinegar and were tested for neophobia to red-colored 4.0% vinegar. Intake of red vinegar reliably increased with the number of preexposures. However, preexposure to red-colored water facilitated intake of red vinegar more than preexposure to clear 4.0% vinegar did. These results suggest that the familiarity of telereceptive (visual) stimuli attenuates the demonstration of taste neophobia.

Animals↗

PubMedDate not supplied

How does interoceptive exposure for panic disorder work? An uncontrolled case study.

To examine the influence of interoceptive exposure (IE) when used alone in the treatment of Panic Disorder (PD), 17 PD patients were presented with six IE sessions, using 35% CO2 as the exposure medium. The data indicate that IE alone is effective in reducing panic, panic-related fears, and general anxiety. However, the positive effects of IE do not appear to extend to agoraphobia, related fears, or depressed mood. Two distinct within-session patterns of fear response to IE were noted, one indicating habituation and the other indicating a lack of fear reduction. Although both patterns were associated with reductions in panic and anxiety following IE, the Habituators appeared to have a more positive outcome, which occurred more rapidly. These data suggest that IE may operate via two different pathways. Implications for understanding fear reduction are discussed, along with directions for future study.

Administration, Inhalation↗

PubMed1999

Glucagon-like peptide-1 (7-36) amide: a central regulator of satiety and interoceptive stress.

Glucagon-like peptide-1 (7-36) amide (GLP-1) is processed from proglucagon in the distal ileum as well as in the CNS. In the periphery, GLP-1 acts as an incretin factor and profoundly inhibits upper gastrointestinal motility ('ileal brake'), the latter presumably involving the CNS. Within the CNS, GLP-1 has a satiating effect, since administration of GLP-1 into the third cerebral ventricle reduces short-term food intake (and meal size), while administration of GLP-1 antagonists have the opposite effect. In addition, activation of GLP-1 receptors in certain brain regions elicits strong taste aversions. Similarities between toxin- and GLP-1-induced neuronal activity in the CNS (brain stem) suggest a role for central GLP-1 receptors in relaying interoceptive stress. Thus, regionally distinct GLP-1 receptor populations in the CNS may be involved in satiety or malaise. It is argued that the satiating and aversive aspects of GLP-1 serve homeostatic and nonhomeostatic functions with respect to maintenance of nutrient balance.

Animals↗

PubMed2004

Memory-strengthening activity of Glycyrrhiza glabra in exteroceptive and interoceptive behavioral models.

In the traditional system of medicine, the roots and rhizomes of Glycyrrhiza glabra have been employed clinically for centuries for their anti-inflammatory, anti-ulcer, expectorant, antimicrobial, and anxiolytic activities. The present study was undertaken to investigate the effects of G. glabra, popularly known as liquorice (Mulathi), on learning and memory. The elevated plus-maze and passive avoidance paradigm were employed to evaluate learning and memory parameters. Three doses (75, 150, and 300 mg/kg p.o.) of aqueous extract of G. glabra were administered for 7 successive days in separate groups of mice. The dose of 150 mg/kg of the aqueous extract of liquorice significantly improved learning and memory of mice. Furthermore, this dose reversed the amnesia induced by diazepam (1 mg/kg i.p.), scopolamine (0.4 mg/kg i.p.), and ethanol (1 g/kg i.p.). Anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties of liquorice may be contributing favorably to the memory enhancement effect. Since scopolamine-induced amnesia was reversed by liquorice, it is possible that the beneficial effect on learning and memory may be because of facilitation of cholinergic transmission in brain. However, further studies are necessitated to identify the exact mechanism of action. In the present investigation, G. glabra has shown promise as a memory enhancer in both exteroceptive and interoceptive behavioral models of memory.

Administration, Oral↗

PubMed1999

Interoceptive stress activates glucagon-like peptide-1 neurons that project to the hypothalamus.

This study tested the hypothesis that systemic stressors in rats activate glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1)-immunoreactive neurons in the caudal brain stem, including those that project to the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus (PVN). Neural tracer was microinjected into the PVN to retrogradely label brain stem neurons. Seven to ten days later, rats were injected with lithium chloride (LiCl; 50 mg/kg). Additional non-tracer-injected rats were treated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS; 100 microgram/kg) or CCK (100 microgram/kg) or were allowed to consume a very large meal. Rats were killed 90-120 min after drug treatment or 30 min after the meal. Brains were processed for immunocytochemical localization of c-Fos (a marker of neuronal activation), GLP-1, and, when appropriate, neural tracer. The majority of GLP-1 neurons were activated to express c-Fos after LiCl, LPS, or CCK treatment, including (in LiCl-treated rats) those projecting to the PVN. In contrast, GLP-1 neurons rarely expressed c-Fos after ingestion of a large meal, despite prominent activation of other brain stem neurons. These results suggest that GLP-1 neurons are uniquely activated in situations of interoceptive stress, and may participate in adaptive hypothalamic stress responses.

Animals↗

PubMed2004

Clinical, psychopathological and personality correlates of interoceptive awareness in anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa and obesity.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the levels of interoceptive awareness (IA), which measures the ability of an individual to discriminate between sensations and feelings, and between the sensations of hunger and satiety, in eating disorder patients and to identify the clinical, psychopathological and personal variables correlated with IA. SAMPLING AND METHODS: Sixty-one restrictor anorectics, 61 binge-purging anorectics, 104 purging bulimics, 49 obese subjects with binge eating disorder (BED) and 47 obese subjects without BED were compared. They were assessed with the Eating Disorder Inventory-2, the Temperament and Character Inventory, and the Beck Depression Inventory, and their clinical and sociodemographic features were recorded. RESULTS: In all patients, the levels of IA were higher than the 'normal' ones; in bulimia nervosa, they were higher than in anorexia nervosa and obesity. Similar personal features and eating attitudes are shared by patients with bulimia nervosa and BED. In the total sample, the following variables independently correlate with IA: the Beck Depression Inventory, self- directedness and persistence. CONCLUSIONS: The importance of an altered IA in eating disorders is supported. Both depression and a perfectionist and poorly self-directive personality can lead to greater difficulties in discriminating hunger and satiety.

Adult↗

PubMed2005

Double dissociation of exteroceptive and interoceptive feedback systems in the orbital and ventromedial prefrontal cortex of humans.

The primate ventral prefrontal cortex contains two densely interconnected subregions: a lateral/orbital cortex processing primarily sensory/exteroceptive information, and a ventromedial cortex processing primarily visceroappetitive/interoceptive information. These regions have major afferents from and efferents to other associative cortices. The organization of these structures leads to an hypothesized role in feedback processing. We use neuroimaging to test this model, defined so far mostly through anatomical studies. Healthy volunteers were trained operantly on a transitive inference task (A>B, B>C ==> A>C) requiring flexible manipulation of feedback to solve. Two groups of subjects learned an arbitrary face hierarchy, one adjacent face pair at a time; each group received either visual/exteroceptive ("XXXX") or visceroappetitive/interoceptive (fruit juice) feedback for correct responses to adjacent face pairs. After task acquisition, the subjects were tested on novel stimulus pairs (i.e., nonadjacent, TEST) derived from the acquired hierarchy. The TEST condition required transitive inference. No feedback was provided during TEST. Brain activity during TEST in the group trained with visual/exteroceptive feedback increased in the orbital prefrontal cortex and decreased in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex. In contrast, brain activity during TEST in the group trained with visceroappetitive/interoceptive feedback decreased in the orbital prefrontal cortex and increased in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex. These results provide functional evidence, consistent with previous anatomical studies, for two major feedback systems in human ventral prefrontal cortex: a lateral system specialized for exteroceptive information and a medial system specialized for interoceptive information. Although highly interconnected, there is a double dissociation of function between these networks in healthy humans.

Adult↗

PubMed1965

Operant discrimination of an interoceptive stimulus in rhesus monkeys.

Five rhesus macaques monkeys surgically prepared with Thiry small intestinal (jejunum) loops and implanted brain electrodes were restrained in primate chairs and kept on 23-hr deprivation-feeding cycle. After being trained to press a lever for sugar pills on an FR 25 schedule of reinforcement, a discrimination training procedure was established. Lever presses were reinforced during the S(D)-a non-aversive mechanical stimulus applied to the internal walls of the Thiry loop by rhythmic inflation-deflation of a small latex balloon by air at the rate of one cycle per sec at 100 mm Hg pressure. The S(Delta) was the absence of the visceral stimulation. The monkeys successfully discriminated between presence and absence of the internal stimulus. A discrimination reversal was attempted and completed on one monkey. The results clearly show operant discrimination based on an interoceptive stimulus. Cortical and subcortical EEG records reflected the onset but not termination of the visceral stimulation.

Animals↗

PubMed2000

[Lipid peroxidation and the antioxidant system activity of the blood serum and tissues of the stomach and brain in interoceptive stimulation of the gastrointestinal tract].

Changes of the level of lipids peroxide oxygenation and activity of antioxigenative system in blood serum and in the tissues of stomach, brain under the condition of interoceptive stimulation of the gastro-intestinal tract. Violation of correlation among the processes of free radical lipid oxidation and antioxidant defence of the organism towards activation of lipoperoxidation in the above mentioned conditions has been determined. The degree of this violation depends on the nature of the stimulus action.

Animals↗

PubMed1990

[The neurophysiological mechanisms of the perception of interoceptive signals].

The EEG arousal response was studied in conditions of gastric distension, the arousal response depending on the intensity of the distension. Repeated interoceptive stimuli led to the habituation. The data obtained help to better understand the mechanisms of normal and pathological types of activity of visceral systems.

Air↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Interoceptive conditioning through repeated suppression of morphine-abstinence. I. Basis for conditioning: once-daily vs. continuous intravenous morphine infusion.

Experimental evaluation of Wikler's interoceptive conditioning hypothesis of relapse to opioid use in ex-addicts requires a preliminary study of the degree of physical dependence produced by two methods of drug administration. Wistar rats were made physically dependent on morphine by single daily intravenous injections or by a continuous i.v. infusion. Rats received the same total daily dose regardless of administration schedule. The initial daily morphine dose was 20 mg/kg, and was increased every fourth day by 20 mg/kg, until a dose of 200 mg/kg per day was reached. The rats were maintained at the highest dose level for 18 days, at which time morphine was discontinued. Body weight and water intake were the primary variables measured during addiction, maintenance, and abstinence phases of the study. Equivalent and parallel changes in mean weight and water intake in injection and infusion rats indicate equivalent degrees of physical dependence were developed. This finding allows separation of the contribution of conditioning factors and of protracted abstinence in facilitating opioid self-administration in formerly-dependent organisms.

Animals↗

PubMed1988

Characterization of a pentylenetetrazol-like interoceptive stimulus produced by ethanol withdrawal.

Rats were trained with food reinforcement to discriminate the anxiogenic drug pentylenetetrazol (PTZ, 20 mg/kg) from saline in a two-lever-choice task. In Experiment 1, ethanol, 8.25% w/v was given by gavage (7/day) for 4 days, with doses titrated to maintain moderate intoxication. After termination of ethanol, the rats exhibited mild overt signs of withdrawal and, in discrimination tests with saline as the test substance, they selected the PTZ lever, an effect reversed by ethanol, 2 g/kg, and by diazepam, 5 mg/kg. In Experiment 2, rats drank a nutritionally complete liquid diet containing ethanol, 4.5% w/v, for 1 week. They became tolerant to the intoxicating effect of ethanol, and blood ethanol concentration mounted with continued dosing. On termination of chronic ethanol, rats selected the PTZ lever before the onset of overt physical signs of withdrawal, and both measures returned to base line within 3 days. In Experiment 3 the percentage of rats selecting the PTZ lever after termination of ethanol depended upon the dose (up to 12.5 g/kg) and duration (up to a ceiling effect by 3 days) of ethanol administered chronically. These results indicate that a PTZ-like stimulus produced interoceptively can be demonstrated in the rat as an objective measure of ethanol withdrawal. This paradigm may provide insight into the symptom of anxiety associated with ethanol withdrawal.

Animals↗

PubMed1987

[Existence of a peripheral nerve mechanism of interoceptive effects on the function of the adrenal medulla].

In cats with decentralized solar plexus ganglia, discharges in the central stumps of post-ganglionic nerve branches running from the celiac and superior mesenteric ganglia to the adrenal glands, were studied. An obvious peripheral neural connection through C-afferents of peripheral origin was found to exist among the spleen, stomach, small intestine and the adrenals. Electrical stimulation of the central stumps of splenic or superior mesenteric nerves increased adrenaline, noradrenaline and dopamine contents in the adrenals. Simultaneously there was an increase in the catecholamine concentration in the myocardium, medulla oblongata and hypothalamus, indicating the release of hormones into the blood flow and their uptake by the tissues. A peripheral neural mechanism seems to exist which mediates interoceptive influences on the adrenal medullary function.

Adrenal Medulla↗

PubMedDate not supplied

[Role of interoceptive afferentation in the activities of the cortical portion of the visual analyzer].

The experiments on diplacin-immobilized rats showed that stimulation of gastric and rectal mechanoreceptors caused noticeable changes in the control and light-induced impulse activity of neurons of the optic cortex (field 17). The predominant pattern of cell reactions were tonic changes of impulsation. They included both stimulatory and inhibitory effects. The latter occurred mostly as a result of stimulation of gastric mechanoreceptors. Changes in the evoked activity of those neurons involved most frequently enhancement or inhibition of responses, contrasting and stabilization of short-latent responses, and their masking with neuronal noise. The paper discusses the functional importance of the above changes in the control and evoked activities of neurons of the optic cortex during interoceptive effects as well as possible central pathways of their realization in the optic cortex.

Afferent Pathways↗

PubMed1982

[Effect of interoceptive stimulation of the stomach on photically evoked potentials of the visual cortex with reference to blood pressure and heart rate in the cat].

In ten chloralose narcotized, relaxed and constantly oxygenated cats the stomachs were dilated with two different pressures in acute experiments. Photically evoked potentials (PEP) were derived from the visual cortex of the animals. The aim of the work was to find out in which respect the processing of an exteroreceptive stimulus (light stimulus of only 200 ms) in the visual analyzer can be influenced by an interoceptive stimulation. Besides, it had to be established to which extent the visceral stimulation leads to a change of other vegetative parameters. Qualitative alterations of different PEP-parameters, blood pressure and heart rate of the experimental animals were examined at different stomach pressures. Changes of the positive and negative amplitudes and the time of the negative component of the primary complex of the evoked potential have been observed. Moreover, there could be registered an increase in blood pressure depending on the height of stomach pressure. The heart rate was not influenced. Further studies will have to clarify whether the changes of the PEP are produced by the interoreceptive stimulus or by the changes of blood pressure or respiration.

Animals↗

PubMedDate not supplied

[The effect of changes in the level of interoceptive afferentation on the spontaneous periodic motor activity of rat pups].

The effect of intraperitoneally injected (25 mg/kg) novocaine (procaine) on the spontaneous periodic motor activity was investigated in rat puppies ageing from 1 to 14 days. It was shown that reactions were phasic: initial continuous and then elevated activity was followed by depression and recovery. The duration and intensity of stimulation and depression decrease with age. It was concluded that in newborn animals an excitability of motor centers depends on the level of interoceptive afferentation. The last may be one of the motor activity regulation mechanisms. The role of this mechanism decreases with age in favour of extero- and proprioception mechanisms of motor control.

Afferent Pathways↗

PubMed1976

Transfer from extero-to interoceptive reinforcement in the course of instrumental conditioning in rats.

The possibility of maintaining an ingestive instrumental reflex following the transfer from oral food reinforcement to different kinds of intragastric reinforcements (liquid food, water, hypertonic NaCl and morphine) was investigated. The experiment carried out on male hooded rats with previously implanted nasopharyngeal gastric tube showed that in all but the morphine reinforced group the performance gradually decreased showing a pattern of extinction similar to nonreinforced control group. Instrumental response was maintained in morphine reinforced rats although they were not drug addicted. The results obtained contradict the possibility of instrumental conditioning of ingestive reflexes reinforced interoceptively. They also question the drive-reduction hypothesis of instrumental conditioning, supplying further evidence in favor of the hedonistic view.

Animals↗

PubMed1976

[Role of interoceptive signalization in modulating emotional-behavioral responses].

Chronic experiments were conducted on rabbits; electrodes were implanted into the deep structures of the brain. Stimulation of gastric receptors led to modulation of the emotional-behavioristic reactions induced by electric stimulation of the hypothalamus, the amygdala and the hypocampus. The effect depended on the intensity of interoceptive stimulation and peculiarities of the emotional reaction with own cerebral control systems.

Aggression↗