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PubMedDate not supplied

MR imaging findings of painful type II accessory navicular bone: correlation with surgical and pathologic studies.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the MR imaging findings of painful type II accessory navicular bone and to correlate these with the surgical and pathologic findings. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The MR images of 17 patients with medial foot pain and surgically proven type II accessory navicular abnormalities were reviewed. The changes of signal intensity in the accessory navicular, synchondrosis and adjacent soft tissue, the presence of synchondrosis widening, and posterior tibial tendon (PTT) pathology on the T1-weighted and fat-suppressed T2-weighted images were analyzed. The MR imaging findings were compared with the surgical and pathologic findings. RESULTS: The fat-suppressed T2-weighted images showed high signal intensity in the accessory navicular bones and synchondroses in all patients, and in the soft tissue in 11 (64.7%) of the 17 patients, as well as synchondrosis widening in 3 (17.6%) of the 17 patients. The MR images showed tendon pathology in 12 (75%) of the 16 patients with PTT dysfunction at surgery. The pathologic findings of 16 surgical specimens included areas of osteonecrosis with granulomatous inflammation, fibrosis and destruction of the cartilage cap. CONCLUSION: The MR imaging findings of painful type II accessory navicular bone are a persistent edema pattern in the accessory navicular bone and within the synchondrosis, indicating osteonecrosis, inflammation and destruction of the cartilage cap. Posterior tibial tendon dysfunction was clinically evident in most patients.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2006

[Tibialis posterior tendon dysfunction. An often neglected cause of painful adult flatfoot].

The posterior tibialis tendon is the most important dynamic stabilizer of the medial longitudinal arch of the foot. Posterior tibial tendon dysfunction (PTTD) may result from an acute trauma or a progressive degeneration of the tendon and should be suspected in painful flatfoot. The diagnosis is largely clinical, based on pain, tenderness and swelling along the tendon underneath the medial malleolus, the too-many-toes sign and persistant hindfoot valgus during heel rise. Untreated PTTD often results in total collapse of the longitudinal arch and severe osteoarthritis of the ankle or hindfoot. In traumatic cases acute repair of the tendon should be considered.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Adult flatfoot/posterior tibial tendon dysfunction: outcomes analysis of surgical treatment utilizing an algorithmic approach.

A new classification scheme is presented along with an algorithmic surgical approach to the treatment of posterior tibial tendon dysfunction (PTTD). This classification scheme treats as separate entities the soft-tissue and osseous components of PTTD. The soft-tissue pathology is staged from tendinitis to tendinosis to that of complete rupture. The osseous element is graded as no planar deformity, reducible planar deformity, or rigid planar deformity. The stage of soft-tissue pathology is then combined with the grade of the osseous condition, leading to a comprehensive surgical treatment plan. Based on this classification, 13 patients were retrospectively evaluated. Only those patients falling into a specific classification (2A and 2B) were included in this analysis. The American Orthopedic Foot and Ankle Society clinical hindfoot-ankle scale was utilized. The mean preoperative clinical rating was 32.8. The mean postoperative clinical rating was 88.0. Pre- and postoperative radiographic criteria were also analyzed. Overall patient satisfaction utilizing this treatment algorithm was good to excellent.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2003

Nonoperative treatment of adult acquired flat foot with the Arizona brace.

Nonoperative treatment of posterior tibial tendon dysfunction can be successful with the Arizona AFO brace, particularly when treatment is initiated in the early stages of the disease. This mandates that the orthopedist has a high index of suspicion when evaluating patients to make an accurate diagnosis. Although there is a role for surgical management of acquired flat feet, a well-fitted, custom-molded leather and polypropylene orthosis can be effective at relieving symptoms and either obviating or delaying any surgical intervention. In today's climate of patient satisfaction directed health care, a less invasive treatment modality that relieves pain may prove to be more valuable than similar pain relief that is obtained after surgery. Questions regarding the long-term results of bracing remain unanswered. Future studies are needed to determine if disease progression and arthrosis occur despite symptomatic relief with a brace. Furthermore, age- and disease stage-matched control groups who are randomized to undergo surgery or bracing are necessary to compare these different treatment modalities. At this time, the Arizona AFO brace can be a useful weapon in the orthopedist's armamentarium for treating acquired flat foot deformity.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

[Modified Evans osteotomy for the operative treatment of acquired pes planovalgus].

OBJECTIVE: Restoration of the longitudinal arch of the foot and reorientation of the hindfoot for painful decompensating flatfoot (pes planovalgus) due to posterior tibial tendon dysfunction. INDICATIONS: Passively correctable, painful pes planovalgus of various etiologies such as stage II flatfoot as graded by Johnson & Strom mostly due to degeneration of the posterior tibial tendon in stage II-III as described by Jahss. CONTRAINDICATIONS: Fixed pes planovalgus, osteoporosis of the calcaneus, advanced degenerative arthritis of the subtalar, talonavicular or calcaneocuboid joints. SURGICAL TECHNIQUE: Transverse osteotomy of the anterior process of the calcaneus approximately 1.5 cm proximal of and parallel to the calcaneocuboid joint. Lengthening of the lateral column using the sandwich technique by the interposition of one to two autologous, tricortical bone grafts, which are structured to straighten the hindfoot and to move it toward neutral position. If the technique is performed correctly, the talus and the calcaneus are in alignment. When the talar head is externally rotated and the calcaneus is moved toward varus, this results in axial alignment of the abducted forefoot and straightening of the collapsed longitudinal arch of the foot. RESULTS: Between June 1995 and March 2003, 21 patients with stage II painful pes planovalgus as described by Johnson & Strom underwent a modified Evans osteotomy. In one case an arthrodesis of the first tarsometatarsal joint was carried out, and in four cases a lengthening of the gastrocnemius muscle according to Strayer. A replacement of the insufficient posterior tibial tendon was not necessary in any of the cases. With respect to complications one wound edge necrosis and one nonunion were seen. 15 patients (eleven women, four men, average age 54 years) were followed up for an average of 48 months (12-81 months) postoperatively. The Maryland Foot Score improved significantly from 49.6 points preoperatively to 87.8 points postoperatively (p < 0.01). In the cases of one-sided deformity the foot axes in the weight-bearing radiographs were corrected to being close to the physiologic values of the opposite side.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Double calcaneal osteotomy: realignment considerations in eight patients.

Posterior calcaneal displacement and anterior calcaneal distraction osteotomies have been recommended for surgical management of flexible flatfoot deformity. We combined these procedures for surgical management of adolescent flatfoot and late stage II posterior tibial tendon dysfunction in the adult. Lateral column distraction has been shown to reduce rearfoot valgus and forefoot abduction by stabilizing the midtarsal joint. Posterior calcaneal displacement osteotomy, which results in medial translation of the tuberosity, converts the posterior muscle group from an everter to an inverter. A supinatory moment, therefore, is created about the subtalar joint axis, which results in supination during the midstance phase of gait. These procedures may be considered when calcaneal valgus, forefoot abduction, and midtarsal joint instability are clinically significant. We also include rearfoot alignment radiographs, long leg calcaneal axial radiographs, and malleolar valgus indices to further evaluate alignment of the foot, ankle, and leg. Ideal realignment is achieved when the heel is vertical in resting calcaneal stance position, the forefoot is parallel to the rearfoot in the frontal plane, and the medial column is stabilized, with elimination of forefoot abduction.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2004

Subtalar joint arthrodesis using a single lag screw.

BACKGROUND: This study tested the hypotheses that fusing the subtalar joint with a single lag screw from the posteroinferior calcaneus to the anterior talar neck is an effective technique and that factors affecting the time to fusion can be identified. METHODS: Between October, 1995, and July, 2002, the senior author (RAM) performed 101 isolated subtalar arthrodeses using a technique of single lag-screw fixation from posteroinferior to anterosuperior across the posterior facet of the subtalar joint combined with the application of an autograft taken from the floor of the sinus tarsi and anterior process. The average patient age was 52 (range 17 to 82) years. There were 52 women (53 arthrodeses) and 48 men (48 arthrodeses). Eight of 101 (8%) arthrodeses were revisions. The indications included posttraumatic arthritis (45), posterior tibial tendon dysfunction (18), failed prior ankle joint fusion (14), idiopathic disorders (12), hindfoot coalition (7), rheumatoid arthritis (3), and Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease (2). Fifteen of 101 patients (15%) smoked an average of 0.9 +/- 0.5 pack of cigarettes per day. RESULTS: Two of 101 joints did not fuse, resulting in an overall fusion rate of 98%. The average time to fusion was 12.3 +/- 3.4 weeks. The presence of a prior ankle fusion significantly prolonged the time to fusion of the subtalar joint (11.9 +/- 2.3 vs. 14.9 +/- 7.0, p = .003). Other factors, including smoking, revision surgery, patient age, and patient sex, did not affect time to fusion. The fixation screw was removed in 13 of 101 (13%) joints at an average of 8.8 +/- 0.5 months. CONCLUSIONS: Using a single 7.0-mm lag screw across the posterior facet of the subtalar joint results in fusion of the subtalar joint in 98% of patients. A prior ankle arthrodesis delays the time to fusion of the subtalar joint by 3 weeks. This is a simple and reliable technique for achieving fusion of the subtalar joint.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2002

[Ultrasound diagnosis of the posterior tibial tendon].

Standardized sonographic delineation of the posterior tibial tendon using high-frequency ultrasonography with quantitative evaluation of the transverse section may confirm or exclude the clinical suspicion of posterior tibial tendon dysfunction and can serve as a complement to magnetic resonance imaging.

Ankle Injuries↗
PubMed1999

MR imaging findings in spring ligament insufficiency.

OBJECTIVE: Spring ligament insufficiency is associated with chronic posterior tibial tendon dysfunction, and may constitute an indication for surgical repair or reconstruction. This study examines the accuracy of MRI for the diagnosis of insufficiency of the spring ligament. DESIGN AND PATIENTS: Two experienced musculoskeletal radiologists independently scored the MRI findings in 13 cases of surgically proven spring ligament insufficiency and in 18 control subjects, using a standardized scoring system. RESULTS: Insufficiency of the spring ligament was associated with increased signal heterogeneity on short TE spin echo images, and an increase in the thickness of the medial portion of the ligament. The sensitivity of MRI for the diagnosis of spring ligament insufficiency was 54-77%, while the specificity was 100%. MRI assessment of the plantar portion of the spring ligament was unreliable (kappa=0.33), but the assessment of global ligament integrity was substantially reproducible (kappa=0.76). CONCLUSION: The medial portion of the spring ligament can be reliably assessed on routine MRI. The findings of spring ligament insufficiency on MRI are only moderately sensitive but highly specific.

Case-Control Studies↗
PubMed2004

Talonavicular arthrodesis.

Isolated talonavicular fusions have most commonly been performed for pes valgus deformity, rheumatoid arthritis, and post-traumatic arthritis. Recent reports have advocated its use for posterior tibial tendon dysfunction. The isolated fusion of the talonavicular joint is an effective procedure to reduce rearfoot biomechanical faults. This allows the procedure to not only address local pathology but general rearfoot deformities as well. Complications with the procedure are rare.

Arthrodesis↗
PubMed2005

Posterior calcaneal displacement osteotomy for the adult acquired flatfoot.

The posterior calcaneal displacement osteotomy with flexor digitorum longus tendon transfer is an accepted approach to the stage II posterior tibial tendon dysfunction flatfoot. This reconstructive osteotomy provides a viable alternative to isolated hindfoot arthrodesis procedures. Proper patient selection and sound surgical technique ensure favorable postoperative results. Complications, though limited, may include sural neuritis, peroneal tendonitis, undercorrection, and peritalar arthrosis.

Adult↗
PubMed2001

Medial sliding calcaneal osteotomy with flexor hallucis longus transfer for the treatment of posterior tibial tendon insufficiency.

Medial sliding calcaneal osteotomy is a simple bone procedure to augment tendon transfer in treatment of stage 2 posterior tibial tendon dysfunction. This osteotomy moves the valgus heel under the weight-bearing axis of the leg, shifts the Achilles' insertion medially, and decreases strain on the spring ligament and deltoid ligaments. The osteotomy heals within 6 weeks. Consistently reproducible good-to-excellent results have been achieved using medial sliding calcaneal osteotomy in conjunction with FHL transfer.

Calcaneus↗
PubMed1999

Subtalar repositional arthrodesis for adult acquired flatfoot.

Arthrodesis of the subtalar joint is well recognized treatment option for moderate or severe flatfoot associated with adult acquired flatfoot secondary to posterior tibial tendon dysfunction. The success of the subtalar arthrodesis is dependent on restoration of normal bony relationships in the hindfoot and midfoot. For this reason, a distinction is made between a repositional arthrodesis and the traditional in situ type of arthrodesis. An in vitro study of the adult acquired flatfoot identifies an anteroposterior subluxation of the subtalar articulation that can be corrected durably and reliably through a repositional talocalcaneal arthrodesis. Intraoperative reduction techniques are useful in obtaining reduction of the peritalar subluxation. There are certain clinical features that help identify patients with flatfoot deformities who are good candidates for subtalar fusion. As the pathoanatomy of the flatfoot deformity is better elucidated, treatment techniques are modified to better address the key elements of the deformity. A repositional subtalar arthrodesis was shown to produce excellent correction in a moderate to severe in vitro flatfoot example in the authors' clinical series.

Adult↗
PubMed2000

Biomechanical evaluation of calcaneocuboid distraction arthrodesis: a cadaver study of two different fixation methods.

Calcaneocuboid distraction arthrodesis can be used to treat stage 2 posterior tibial tendon dysfunction. Nonunion, graft resorption, and implant failure have been reported after this procedure. This study compared two of the most commonly used methods for fixation of calcaneocuboid distraction arthrodesis. Twelve pairs of cadaver feet underwent simulated calcaneocuboid distraction arthrodesis. One specimen in each pair was fixed with two crossed 3.5 mm cortical lag screws. The contralateral specimen was fixed with a cervical H-plate. The calcaneus was fixed and a load was applied to the plantar aspect of the cuboid at a rate of 5 mm/minute until joint separation of 3 mm or fracture occurred. The average applied load to failure at 1.0 mm of joint separation was 30.5 +/- 11.6 N for the crossed screws and 77.7 +/- 36.4 N for the cervical H-plate (p = 0.001). The average stiffness at 1.0 mm of joint separation was 27.5 +/- 10.9 N/mm for the crossed screws and 43 +/- 21.2 N/mm for the cervical H-plate (p = 0.036). The higher stiffness and load to failure may account for the decreased nonunion rate noted anecdotally by some surgeons with H-plate fixation over crossed screw fixation for calcaneocuboid distraction arthrodesis.

Aged↗
PubMed2005

Effects of a UCBL orthosis and a calcaneal osteotomy on tibiotalar contact characteristics in a cadaver flatfoot model.

BACKGROUND: A flatfoot deformity alters the contact characteristics of the ankle joint, shifting the location of articulation posterolaterally, increasing pressure, and decreasing the contact area within the ankle. These changes may explain the pattern of articular degeneration and subsequent angulation observed in a long-standing adult acquired flatfoot. Corrective orthoses and surgical reconstruction have been used to realign pes planovalgus feet, but the effects of these treatments on tibiotalar contact characteristics are unknown. We hypothesized that realignment of a flatfoot with either corrective orthosis or surgical reconstruction would restore the contact characteristics of the ankle to the intact state. METHODS: The mean value of the contact area, contact pressure, peak contact pressure, and the relative locations of the global contact area and peak pressure within the ankle joint were determined from imprints created on pressure sensitive film for a series of cadaver lower limbs subjected to a weightbearing load in simulated midstance phase of gait. Each limb was loaded sequentially under four conditions: intact, flatfoot, flatfoot realigned with UCBL orthosis, and flatfoot realigned with a medial translational osteotomy of the calcaneus. RESULTS: The use of the UCBL orthosis and calcaneal osteotomy altered the contact characteristics of the ankle when compared with the flatfoot condition. Both interventions significantly decreased the mean global contact pressure from the flatfoot value, with the orthosis, demonstrating a significantly greater correction than the osteotomy. The orthosis also significantly reduced the peak contact pressure from the flatfoot value. Both interventions significantly corrected the lateral shift of the center of the peak contact pressure from the flatfoot value. The shift in the center of the global contact area approached significance when the orthosis was compared with the flatfoot. CONCLUSIONS: The changes observed in the magnitude and location of the mean and peak pressures indicate that the UCBL orthosis and calcaneal osteotomy altered hindfoot alignment to significantly influence tibiotalar contact characteristics. The results further suggest that the UCBL orthosis corrected ankle malalignment better than the calcaneal osteotomy in an adult acquired flatfoot. This study provides biomechanical data to support the clinical impression that realignment of the hindfoot corrects the pathologic tibiotalar contact characteristics associated with an adult acquired flatfoot. The results support the conclusion that the clinical management of a pes planovalgus foot with a UCBL orthosis or a medial translational osteotomy of the calcaneus may avert the onset of pantalar disease seen with late-stage posterior tibial tendon dysfunction.

Cadaver↗
PubMed2006

An in vitro study comparing the use of suture anchors and drill hole fixation for flexor digitorum longus transfer to the navicular.

BACKGROUND: The surgical management of posterior tibial tendon dysfunction often includes transfer of the flexor digitorum longus (FDL) tendon through a tunnel in the navicular. Fixation often is obtained by sewing the tendon back onto itself. The purpose of this study was to compare this standard method of fixation with suture anchor fixation, a technique that may be associated with less surgical morbidity, because it requires the harvesting of less tendon length. METHODS: FDL tendon transfer to the navicular was done in 13 fresh-frozen cadaver specimens. In six feet comprising the standard group, the FDL tendon was transected distal to the master knot of Henry, placed through a drill hole into the navicular, and sutured back onto itself. In seven feet the FDL tendon was transected proximal to the master knot of Henry, placed into a drill hole into the navicular, and fixed with a suture anchor. Load was applied to the proximal FDL muscle and tendon using a materials testing system (MTS) machine and peak load to failure was measured. RESULTS: The mean load to failure was 142.48 N +/- 38.06 N for the standard group and 142.12 N +/- 59.26 N for the suture anchor group (p = 0.305 for the Student-t test and p = 0.945 for the Mann-Whitney test). CONCLUSION: Transfer of the FDL tendon to the navicular using suture anchor fixation requires less tendon length yet provides similar fixation strength as compared to sewing the tendon back onto itself. However, suture anchors are considerably more expensive than sutures. CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS: Suture anchors allow comparable fixation of FDL tendon transfer into a navicular without the need to disrupt the master knot of Henry. This technique may be associated with less morbidity including a shorter incision, decreased risk of medial plantar nerve injury, and decreased loss of lesser toe plantarflexion strength secondary to maintenance of the normal interconnections between the flexor hallucis longus (FHL) and FDL tendons.

Cadaver↗
PubMed1998

Reconstruction operations for acquired flatfoot: biomechanical evaluation.

A major limitation of operations commonly performed for acquired flatfoot is inadequate correction of alignment. The authors defined the efficacy of two operations, deltoid ligament reconstruction and flexor digitorum longus tendon transfer, for treatment of posterior tibial tendon dysfunction with flatfoot deformity. Twelve fresh-frozen foot specimens were used. A flatfoot deformity was created, and, to simulate the midstance phase of gait, loads were applied axially to the plantar surface of the foot and to appropriate tendons. Foot position improved substantially after deltoid ligament reconstruction but not after flexor digitorum longus tendon transfer. The average increase in arch height after deltoid ligament reconstruction was 10.3 +/- 8.9 mm and after flexor digitorum longus tendon transfer, -0.6 +/- 2.0 mm. Mean arch height after deltoid ligament reconstruction was 2.2 +/- 1.7 mm less than intact arch height and, after flexor digitorum longus tendon transfer, 13.2 +/- 9.0 mm less than intact arch height. Improvement in metatarsal-talar, calcaneal-talar, and talar-tibial positions was significantly greater after deltoid ligament reconstruction than after flexor digitorum longus tendon transfer. Although the authors do not advocate clinical use, the deltoid ligament reconstruction was more effective than flexor digitorum longus tendon transfer in restoring arch alignment in flatfoot.

Adult↗