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PubMed2000

Validation of a model for prediction of skin temperatures in footwear.

A model for foot skin temperature prediction was evaluated on the basis of 2 experiments on subjects at various environmental temperatures (light seated manual work at -10.7 degrees C (Study 1), and a short walking period in combination with standing and sitting at +2.8 degrees C, -11.8 degrees C and -24.6 degrees C (Study 2), with boots of 3 insulation levels. Insulation of the footwear was measured on a thermal foot model. Predicted and measured data showed a relatively good correlation (r = 0.87) at the 2 colder conditions in Study 2. The environmental temperature of 2.8 degrees C was not low enough at the chosen activity for a considerable foot skin temperature drop. In Study 1 the predicted temperature stayed higher for the whole exposure period and the difference between the predicted and the measured foot skin temperatures grew proportionally with time, while subsequent warm-up curves at room temperature were almost parallel. In Study 1 the correlation was 0.95. However, the paired t-test showed usually significant differences between measured and predicted foot skin temperatures. The insulation values from thermal foot measurements can be used in the model calculations. Lotens' foot model is lacking activity as direct input parameter, however, the blood flow is used instead (effect through Tcore). The Lotens foot model can give reasonable foot skin temperature values if the model limitations are considered. Due to the lack of activity level input, it will be difficult to make any good estimation of foot skin temperature during intermittent exercise. The rate of the foot temperature recovery after cold exposure was somewhat overestimated in the model--the warm-up of the feet of the subjects started later and was slower in the beginning of the warm-up than in the prediction. It could be useful to develop the model further by taking into consideration various wetness and activity levels.

Foot↗
PubMed1995

Skin temperature and moisture management with a low air loss surface.

Important factors in the prevention and treatment of pressure ulcers are the maintenance of the physiological conditions of skin temperature and skin moisture level. Low air loss (LAL) therapy is a method of maintaining these conditions. The changes in the skin temperature and skin moisture level with an LAL support system were compared to those with a standard hospital mattress (SHM). The study was conducted on ten volunteers in the supine position for three hours in warm ambient room conditions. Skin temperature was measured continuously. The moisture level of the skin was determined using direct and indirect indicators. The results showed that, on the average, the skin temperature on the LAL system was 1.2 degrees F lower than that on the SHM (p = 0.0001). With the Moisture Vapor Transmission Rate skin moisture indicator, the moisture gain above normal with the LAL system was 87 percent lower than that with the SHM (p = 0.01). Similarly, with the conductance skin moisture indicator the conductance increase above normal with the LAL system was 96 percent lower than that with the SHM (p = 0.01). These results demonstrated the ability of the LAL system to maintain normal skin temperature and moisture content and aid in the protection against skin damage.

Aged↗
PubMed1986

Comparability of skin temperatures from three sites on the hand.

Skin temperature from three recording sites (web dorsum and two digital sites) on one hand were compared over a 30-minute period during which room temperature was raised from 66 degrees to 80 degrees F causing skin temperatures to range from 78.5 degrees to 92.3 degrees F. The web dorsum remained significantly warmer than either digital site at the lowest skin temperatures; no significant inter-site differences were seen as skin temperature gradually increased. These findings imply that none of the three sites is more advantageous than the others when recording hand temperature values around or above 85 degrees F. However, at the lower levels of skin temperature, there is a "floor" below which the web dorsum is no longer a sensitive indicator. More generally, basic data of this type provide a necessary but often absent foundation for routine practice of clinical biofeedback.

Adult↗
PubMed1975

Correction factors in skin temperature measurement.

In 14 persons the skin temperature has been measured by means of thermistor thermometer. The influence of the shape of the probe and the pressure exerted on the resulting value of the skin temperature has been proved. In 10 additional men the relation of the temperature difference (deltaT) to the exerted pressure (P) was determined, the regression equations were derived for relation deltaT/P, and the correlation coefficients for recalculation of the temperatures measured by thermistor thermometer with the pressure exerted 20 g to values determined by thermovision. The skin temperature values determined by thermography were used in 24 formulas (3-16 points) for calculation of mean skin temperature. The differences of the means in determining the optimal method (16 points) were evaluated by the t-test and by the percentage expression of aggrement for criteria plus or minus 0.1, plus or minus 0.2, plus or minus 0.5, and plus or minus 0.1 degrees C. For precise laboratory work 10 points of measurement are recommended; for measurement in the field 6 points of measurement are enough. Orientational measurement can be performed very well by means of Ramanathan method (4 points).

Humans↗
PubMed1984

Differential effects of feedback sensitivity upon learned control of skin temperature.

Ninety subjects participated in a skin temperature biofeedback study concerning the effects of feedback sensitivity. Subjects were randomly assigned to a high sensitivity, low sensitivity, or a no-feedback condition. Based upon previous research, it was predicted that the low sensitivity condition would produce superior skin temperature warming and greater reduction of autonomic arousal. Also, it was predicted that both feedback conditions would be superior to the no-feedback condition for skin temperature control and reduction of autonomic arousal. The results indicated that low sensitivity feedback was not superior to high sensitivity feedback for skin temperature control, but did produce greater reduction of autonomic variables. The prediction that feedback was superior to no-feedback was also confirmed.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1988

Apparent hyperalgesia in the mouse tail-flick test due to increased tail skin temperature after lesioning of serotonergic pathways.

The relationship between tail skin temperature and responsiveness to noxious radiant heat in the tail-flick test was investigated in mice. A significant negative correlation between tail skin temperature and tail-flick latency was found when the tail skin temperature was increased by elevating the ambient temperature. After intracerebroventricular injection of the serotonin neurotoxin 5,7-dihydroxytryptamine (5,7-DHT, 80 micrograms) tail skin temperatures were increased and tail-flick latencies reduced. In contrast, administration of the tryptophan hydroxylase inhibitor p-chlorophenylalanine (PCPA, 400 mg kg-1 for 5 consecutive days) lead to a slight lowering of tail temperatures and a tendency towards elevation of tail-flick latencies. The results show that factors which affect tail skin temperature also influence the tail-flick test in mice. The divergent effects of 5,7-DHT and PCPA on tail-flick responsiveness may be due to the different effects of these compounds on the tail skin temperature. The results suggest that the reduced tail-flick latency after partial destruction of serotonergic pathways by 5,7-DHT is due primarily to the increased tail skin temperature. The dependence of tail-flick latency on tail skin temperature limits the usefulness of the tail-flick test unless changes in tail skin temperature are controlled for.

5,7-Dihydroxytryptamine↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Skin temperature in the neuropathic diabetic foot.

Several authors have reported higher skin temperature in the feet of diabetic subjects with autonomic neuropathy. We reexamined this association in a cross-sectional study of 712 veterans with diabetes mellitus. Potential subjects included all diabetic patients enrolled in a general internal medicine clinic at a veterans affairs healthcare system. Sensory neuropathy was defined as any pedal insensitivity to the 5.07 monofilament. Autonomic neuropathy was determined using standard cardiovascular reflex tests. An infrared surface scanner was used to measure foot skin temperature at multiple sites. Subjects with sensory neuropathy had lower mean plantar foot skin temperature than those without (28.4 degrees C vs. 28.9 degrees C, P=.0101). Autonomic neuropathy as a dichotomous variable was unrelated to foot skin temperature. Foot skin temperature, though, negatively correlated with greater drop in systolic blood pressure with standing, which is an indicator of autonomic neuropathy (r=-.08, P=.0385). Adjustment for potential confounding factors using multiple linear regression analysis resulted in diminution of the associations between foot skin temperature and sensory neuropathy or orthostatic blood pressure drop, but the latter association remained statistically significant in the right foot. Diabetic veterans with sensory or autonomic neuropathy do not have higher foot skin temperature. Our results suggest that skin temperature may be slightly lower with higher orthostatic blood pressure fall. Other causes exist for the frequently observed differences in skin temperature in the feet of diabetic subjects.

Aged↗
PubMed1999

[The changes of peripheral skin temperature in elderly patients under spinal anesthesia].

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the changes of body temperature in elderly compared with younger patients during spinal anesthesia. Twenty six patients, ASA I-II were divided into two groups, (13; under 30 years of age, 13; above 60 years) who received spinal anesthesia with 0.3% dibucaine at the interspace between L 3 and L 4. All patients were anesthetized below T 8 level. Central temperature was measured at the forehead, and peripheral skin temperature was measured at the finger tip and the toe tip for 25 minutes at every 5 minutes. In both groups, forehead temperature and finger tip skin temperature were unchanged, but toe tip skin temperature increased 5 minutes after spinal anesthesia. The degree of toe tip skin temperature change was significantly lower (P < 0.01) in elderly patients and the speed was also slower. We recognized that the change in peripheral skin temperature during spinal anesthesia is not different between elderly and younger patients, but the speed of temperature change is slower in elderly patients.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

Altered skin-temperature regulation in narcolepsy relates to sleep propensity.

STUDY OBJECTIVES: In healthy subjects, sleep propensity increases when the distal skin temperature increases relative to the proximal skin temperature. This increase results from increased blood flow in the skin of the extremities and is, among other factors, controlled by the hypothalamic circadian clock, as is sleep. Because narcolepsy is characterized by hypothalamic alterations, we studied skin temperature in narcoleptic patients in relation to their characteristically increased sleep propensity during the day. DESIGN: Distal and proximal skin temperature and their gradient (DPG) were measured during a Multiple Sleep Latency Test. This allowed temperature to be studied during wakefulness, at sleep onset and during sleep. SETTING: Tertiary narcolepsy referral center in a university hospital. PATIENTS: Fifteen unmedicated narcolepsy patients with cataplexy and 15 controls. INTERVENTIONS: None. MEASUREMENTS AND RESULTS: In subjects in the waking state, DPG was higher in narcoleptics than in controls throughout the day (time by group interaction, p < .0001), due to increased distal skin temperature and decreased proximal skin temperature. The increase in DPG was related to a shorter subsequent sleep-onset latency (p = .02). Once asleep, narcoleptics maintained their elevated distal skin temperature and DPG (p < .0001), whereas proximal skin temperature increased to reach normal levels. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first demonstration of a dramatic alteration of daytime skin temperature control in narcolepsy. Even awake narcoleptic patients showed a DPG higher than that which healthy controls achieve when asleep. This observation suggests that hypocretin deficiency in narcolepsy affects skin-temperature regulation and invites further examination. Skin-temperature control might ultimately even have therapeutic implications for the alleviation of narcoleptic symptoms.

Adult↗
PubMed1997

Evaluation of mean skin temperature formulas by infrared thermography.

To study the reliability of formulas for calculating mean skin temperature (Tsk), values were computed by 18 different techniques and were compared with the mean of 10,841 skin temperatures measured by infrared thermography. One hundred whole-body infrared thermograms were scanned in ten resting males while changing the air temperature from 40 degrees C to 4 degrees C. Local, regional average and mean skin temperatures were obtained using an image processing system. The agreement frequency, defined as the percentage of the calculated Tsk values which agreed with the corresponding infrared thermographic Tsk within +/- 0.2 degree C, ranged for with the various formulas from 7% to 80%. In many sites, the local skin temperature did not coincide with the regional average skin temperature. When the local skin temperatures which showed the highest percentage similarity to the regional average skin temperature within +/- 0.4 degree C were applied to the formula, the agreement frequency was markedly improved for all formulas. However, the agreement frequency was not affected by changing the weighting factors from specific constants to individually measured values of regional surface area. By applying the physiologically reliable accuracy range of +/- 0.2 degree C in the moderate and +/- 0.4 degree C in the cool condition, agreement frequencies of at least 95% were observed in formulas involving seven or more skin temperature measurement sites, including the hand and foot. We conclude that calculation of a reliable mean skin temperature must involve more than seven skin temperature measurement sites regardless of ambient temperature. Optimal sites for skin temperature measurement are proposed for various formulas.

Adult↗
PubMed2001

Effects of baseline skin temperature on pain ratings to suprathreshold temperature-controlled stimuli.

Variations in baseline skin temperature can be encountered in experimental and clinical pain states. Such variations have been shown to greatly alter the response to radiant heat stimuli when the temperature of the stimulus is not controlled. We carried out a psychophysical investigation to examine the influence of baseline skin temperature on pain ratings to temperature-controlled heat stimuli. A CO(2) laser thermal stimulator was used to deliver heat stimuli under radiometer feedback temperature control to the volar forearm. Each stimulus consisted of a 30 s controlled baseline interval (at 34 or 38 degrees C) followed by a stepped increase in temperature (to 46 or 47 degrees C for 1, 2 or 4 s). A run comprised one presentation of each of these12 different stimuli to different locations. Each experiment contained three runs. In runs 2 and 3, the stimulus intensity and duration at a given location were not changed, but the baseline temperature was alternated between 34 degrees C and 38 degrees C. The intensity of pain was rated using the technique of magnitude estimation. Mean normalized pain ratings for suprathreshold stimuli applied from the higher base temperature (1.03+/-0.03) were slightly greater than from the lower base temperature (0.96+/-0.03). In contrast, pain ratings to the 47 degrees C stimuli (1.11+/-0.03) were substantially greater than to the 46 degrees C stimuli (0.88+/-0.03). Thus a 4 degrees C change in baseline temperature has a smaller affect (about 8%) on pain ratings than a 1 degrees C change in stimulus temperature (about 27%). This suggests that variations in baseline skin temperature encountered in experimental and clinical pain states have only a minor impact on pain sensitivity to suprathreshold temperature-controlled stimuli.

Adult↗
PubMed1989

[Evaluation of the skin sympathetic function by the decrease of skin temperature at the finger tip immersed into cold water].

The change of the skin temperature at the finger tip immersed into cold water was measured in normal volunteers and in patients with disturbances of various portions of sympathetic nervous system with copper-constant thermocouple. The skin temperature of the normal subjects decreased soon after the immersion, partly due to cooling by the cold water, and partly due to the decrease of the skin blood flow. The skin sympathetic activity recorded from three normal subjects using the technique of microneurography presented an increase during the decreasing phase of the skin temperature. The skin temperature of the patients who received stellate ganglion block did not fall and maintained higher level compared to that of normal subjects. These data indicated that the decreasing phase of the skin temperature of the immersed finger is related to the increase of skin sympathetic activity. Cases of vascular neuropathy (lesion in post-ganglionic fiber), Shy-Drager syndrome and pure autonomic failure (lesion in pre-ganglionic fiber), cervical spondylosis and cervical disc herniation (lesion in descending tract of sympathetic system in spinal cord), and bleeding in pons tegmentum (lesion in descending tract in brain stem) were examined and all of them presented poor decrease of the skin temperature during the immersion. The skin temperature decreased, but incompletely in the patients, who had suffered from thalamic infarct and post-central gyrus infarct, and did not feel any sense on the immersion. These results indicate that the decreasing phase of the skin temperature of the finger immersed into cold water depends more upon the efferent than upon the afferent system, and this test is useful for evaluation of the skin sympathetic function.

Adult↗
PubMed1995

[Transitory decreases in skin temperature during temperature increase training: possible explanation].

During biofeedback training, skin temperature changes were analyzed. Ten male undergraduates were asked to increase the temperature of the right index finger under three conditions: rest instructions with simulation feedback (Rest-SF), response-specific instructions without feedback (RI-NF), and response-specific instructions with feedback (RI-F). Skin temperature decreases during the early trials under the RI-F condition continued longer than under the RI-NF condition. Recovery from temperature decreases occurred faster after the repetition of feedback sessions. Skin temperature decreases were not observed under the Rest-SF condition. These results suggest that skin temperature decreases during early training associated with response-specific instructions, feedback, and the novelty of training. The results were also discussed in terms of the techniques which could increase skin temperature.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1997

[Measurement of skin temperature as a method of detecting febrile diseases in swine].

The objective of the study was to determine whether precise estimation of rectal temperature of pigs is possible by taking their skin temperature in consideration of different factors as body weight, ambient temperature and relative air humidity. Therefore skin temperature of 272 pigs (7-222 kg BW) was measured by direct (thermo couple element) and indirect (infrared thermometer) methods at distinct localisations. In order to investigate different stages of pyretogenesis Escherichia coli endotoxin was administered to 30 of the pigs intravenously. A significant influence on skin temperature could be ascertained for the ambient temperature and the body weight, but not for the relative air humidity. From these data equations were established to estimate rectal temperature (RT) by measurement the skin temperature (ST) at the base of the ear: 1. Weaners and fattening pigs: RT = ST + 21.867 - 0.089x1 - 0.432x2 + 0.009x3, (r = 0.703) 2. Sows: RT = ST + 31.511 - 0.074x1 - 0.657x2 - 0.011x3, (r = 0.641) (x1 = ambient temperature, x2 = skin temperature, x3 = body weight) In spite of consideration of ambient temperature and body weight estimation of the rectal temperature was not suitable for clear detection of febrile pigs. Only in 35.45% of the younger pigs and in 29.30% of the sows a definite diagnose (fever yes/no) could be made. This method can only be used as a screening in the herd, if estimation of extreme values allowed the recognition of febrile illness. A follow-up control of the rectal temperature is always necessary in groups of animals, where estimations give no clear results.

Aging↗
PubMedDate not supplied

[The effect of local heat and cold packs on the skin temperature at the knee joint].

Using the infrared radiometer KT 41, skin temperature of the knee joint was measured in 5 healthy persons on five different points. With the same method skin temperature of knee joints was estimated after hot mud packs of 20 minutes duration and cold packs with frozen bags of 30 minutes duration. The highest temperatures were estimated near the popliteal space, the lowest temperatures on the patella. During 24 hours, a distinct periodical course of skin temperature could be observed. After the hot pack skin temperature of the treated joint significantly rose; after 1 hour the average temperature before heat application was reached again. After cold application with deeply frozen bags, skin temperature dropped drastically and remained colder than pretreatment temperature for almost 5 hours. Heat application did not influence skin temperature of untreated contralateral knee but during cold application also the temperature of untreated knee slightly decreased. Considering the correlation between skin temperature and intraarticular temperature of joints, the effect of local heating and cooling seems to be more intense than supposed and confirms the therapeutic benefit of heat and cold in rheumatology.

Circadian Rhythm↗
PubMed2003

Skin temperature and chronic venous insufficiency.

OBJECTIVE: This study compared lower leg skin temperatures in adults age 50 years and older with and without chronic venous insufficiency (CVI). Norms and ranges of skin temperature were also established. DESIGN: A descriptive comparative design was used. SETTING AND SUBJECTS: Sixty-six adults recruited from hospital clinics and senior community dwellings participated in the study, which was conducted in an examination room of an outpatient clinic. To be included in the study, those with CVI showed stage 4 and 5 clinical signs. Those without CVI had no clinical signs. INSTRUMENTS: Skin temperature was measured with an infrared dermal thermometer. METHODS: Subjects were seated with legs extended, free of clothing and socks, and loosely covered with a draped sheet for 10 minutes to acclimatize to room temperature. The skin temperature of 4 sites on the lower legs was measured. Analysis of variance and independent t tests were used to compare groups. RESULTS: There was a significant increase in skin temperature at all 4 sites in the ankle area in the group with CVI compared with the comparison group (89.9 degrees F +/- 2.7 degrees F versus 88.1 degrees F +/- 2.1 degrees F, P =.004). CONCLUSIONS: Elevated skin temperature may be an important nursing assessment parameter to evaluate worsening or impending CVI complications such as venous ulcers.

Analysis of Variance↗
PubMed1986

Electrocutaneous sensitivity: effects of skin temperature.

The effect of human skin temperature on electrocutaneous sensitivity was examined using brief capacitive discharges. Stimuli were designed to ensure that sensory effects would be independent of skin resistance and would reflect underlying neural excitability as closely as possible. Skin temperature was manipulated by immersing the forearm in circulating hot or cold air. Detection thresholds on the arm and fingertip were raised by cooling, but were not altered by heating. Temperature-related sensitivity shifts were described by the same multiplicative factors for both threshold and suprathreshold levels. The temperature coefficient (Q10) for cutaneous sensitivity under these conditions was approximately 1.3.

Electric Stimulation↗