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PubMed1985

d-Fenfluramine selectively suppresses carbohydrate snacking by obese subjects.

Twenty obese inpatients who claimed to crave carbohydrate-rich foods were given d-fenfluramine (15 mg p.o., twice daily) or its placebo, double-blind, for two consecutive eight-day periods. Food choices were measured on treatment days 1, 7, and 8 by giving the subjects access to unlimited portions of six isocaloric meal foods (three high in carbohydrate and three high in protein) and of 10 isocaloric snack foods (five high in protein and five high in carbohydrate) available 24 hours a day in a computerized vending machine. d-fenfluramine reduced mealtime calorie intake by only 16% (from 1940 +/- 94 to 1630 +/- 92; p < .001), mealtime carbohydrate by 22%, and had no significant effect on mealtime protein consumption; in contrast, snack calorie intake was reduced by 41% (from 707 +/- 97 to 414 +/- 46; p < .001), and snack carbohydrate intake by the same proportion. The mean number of carbohydrate-rich snacks consumed per day decreased from 5.8 +/- 0.8 to 3.4 +/- 0.4 (p < .01), while that of protein-rich snacks failed to change signficantly (i.e., from 0.7 +/- 0.2 to 0.5 +/- 0.2).

Adult↗

PubMed2006

Expanding the concept of parental control: a role for overt and covert control in children's snacking behaviour?

The existing literature on parental control and children's diets is confusing. The present paper reports two studies to explore an expanded conceptualisation of parental control with a focus on overt control which 'can be detected by the child' and covert control which 'cannot be detected by the child'. In study 1, 297 parents of children aged between 4 and 11 completed a measure of overt control and covert control alongside ratings of their child's snacking behaviour as a means to assess who uses either overt or covert control and how these aspects of parental control relate to a child's snacking behaviour. The results showed that lighter parents and those with children perceived as heavier were more likely to use covert control and those from a higher social class were more likely to use overt control. Further, whilst greater covert control predicted a decreased intake of unhealthy snacks, greater overt control predicted an increased intake of healthy snacks. In study 2, 61 parents completed the same measure of overt and covert control alongside the three control subscales of the Child Feeding Questionnaire [Birch, L.L., Fisher, J.O., Grimm-Thomas, Markey, C.N., Sawyer, R. (2001). Confirmatory factor analysis of the Child Feeding Questionnaire: A measure of parental attitudes, beliefs and practices about child feeding and obesity proneness. Appetite, 36, 201-210] to assess degrees of overlap between these measures. The results showed that although these five measures of control were all positively correlated, the correlations between the new and existing measures indicated a maximum of 21% shared variance suggesting that covert and overt control are conceptually and statistically separate from existing measures of control. To conclude, overt and covert control may be a useful expansion of existing ways to measure and conceptualise parental control. Further, these constructs may differentially relate to snacking behaviour which may help to explain some of the confusion in the literature.

Adult↗

PubMed2005

Effect of limiting snack food variety on long-term sensory-specific satiety and monotony during obesity treatment.

Limiting meal variety decreases hedonic ratings of eaten foods more so than non-eaten foods, demonstrating sensory-specific satiety. Exposure to a food over time decreases the food's hedonic ratings, indicating monotony. The effect of limiting food group variety over time on long-term sensory-specific satiety and monotony is unknown. Thirty overweight adults were randomized to one of two 8-week behavioral weight loss interventions. One condition limited snack food intake to one chosen snack food (reduced variety), while the other limited snack food intake to <1 serving/day (control), with no variety limit. In the reduced variety condition, hedonic ratings of the chosen snack food showed a decrease (p < .05) over time and decreased more (p < .05) than hedonic ratings of other snack foods. Weight loss (-7.4 +/- 5.8 lb) occurred in both conditions. Limiting food group variety over 8 weeks produced long-term sensory-specific satiety and monotony. Future research should examine if limiting food group variety over an extended time affects intake and could be used as a technique in weight loss interventions.

Adult↗

PubMed2006

Meal and snack patterns are associated with dietary intake of energy and nutrients in US adults.

OBJECTIVE: This study was undertaken to test the hypothesis that specific meal and snack patterns are associated with selected nutrient intakes in US adults. DESIGN: Using the 24-hour dietary recall from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, meal and snack patterns were described in relation to nutrient intakes. SUBJECTS: The study included US adults aged 20 years or older (n=15,978). STATISTICAL ANALYSES PERFORMED: All statistical analyses accounted for the survey design and sample weights. Linear regression analyses controlled for confounding factors, including energy intakes. Wald F tests were used for determination of significance between means of nutrient intakes by daily eating frequency or meal pattern groups. RESULTS: Daily eating frequency was positively related to carbohydrate, folic acid, vitamin C, calcium, magnesium, iron, potassium, and fiber intakes and inversely related to protein, total fat, cholesterol, and sodium intakes. Meal patterns were further categorized into the five most commonly reported meal and snack combinations by population percentages including breakfast (B), lunch (L), dinner (D), and > or =2 snacks (S) (31.6%); B, L, D and 1 S (15.4%); B, D and > or =2 S (13.1%); B, L, D (8.3%); and L, D and > or =2 S (7.6%). Groups reporting B, L, D and 1 S and B, L, D and > or =2 S had the highest intakes of all micronutrients examined except cholesterol, vitamin B-6, and sodium. Breakfast skippers (L, D and > or =2 S) had the lowest intakes of all micronutrients examined except sodium. CONCLUSIONS: Findings from this cross-sectional survey suggest that meal and snack patterns may be markers for nutrient intakes and therefore diet quality. Complete nutrient intakes should be considered in investigations of meal patterns and health outcomes.

Adult↗

PubMed2006

Cocoa flavanol-enriched snack bars containing phytosterols effectively lower total and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels.

BACKGROUND: Dietary intervention studies incorporating phytosterol-enriched margarine spreads have reported significant decreases in total and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol in populations with both normal lipid levels and those with hypercholesterolemia. There is emerging support for more diverse and lower-fat phytosterol-enriched matrixes. Controversy exists, however, over whether phytosterol-enriched foods affect serum fat-soluble vitamins. OBJECTIVE: We investigated whether a flavanol-rich cocoa snack food containing phytosterols would decrease total and LDL cholesterol levels in subjects with hypercholesterolemia and significantly affect serum fat-soluble vitamins and carotenoids. DESIGN: A randomized, double-blind parallel arm study design was used. Subjects were randomized to one of two dietary treatments: a cocoa flavanol-enriched snack bar containing 1.5 g phytosterol (n=32), or a control product containing no phytosterols (n=35). Subjects consumed two servings per day. RESULTS: Consumption of the phytosterol-enriched snack bars but not control bars for 6 weeks was associated with significant reductions in plasma total (4.7%; P<0.01) and LDL cholesterol (6%; P<0.01), and the ratio of total to high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (7.4%; P<0.001). There were no changes in high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, triglycerides, or lipid-adjusted lycopene, beta-cryptoxanthin, lutein/zeaxanthin, alpha-carotene levels, or levels of serum vitamins A or E. A significant reduction in lipid-adjusted serum beta-carotene was observed in the phytosterol but not the no-phytosterol-added group (P<0.05). CONCLUSIONS: This study supports the use of a novel phytosterol-enriched snack bar to effectively reduce plasma total and LDL cholesterol levels in a population with hypercholesterolemia. The data suggest that the incorporation of this snack food into a balanced diet represents a practical dietary strategy in the management of serum cholesterol levels.

Cacao↗

PubMed2006

TDIQ (5,6,7,8-tetrahydro-1,3-dioxolo[4,5-g]isoquinoline) inhibits the consumption of "snacks" in mice.

There is considerable evidence that alpha2-adrenergic receptor activity exerts a pivotal role in initiation of feeding behavior. The appetite suppressant and monoamine release effects of TDIQ (5,6,7,8-tetrahydro-1,3-dioxolo[4,5-g]isoquinoline), a putative selective alpha2-adrenergic compound, were compared to those of fenfluramine, a reference drug that produces an anorectic effect via presynaptic release and reuptake inhibition of serotonin. The drugs were administered to two groups of mice that had learned to consume either sweet milk or chocolate pellets (i.e. "snacks") during the low-activity/reduced-feeding "light" portion of their light/dark cycle. The selectivity of the drugs to suppress the consumption of snacks was determined by comparing doses of each drug that inhibited the animals' consumption of snacks to doses of each drug that have been shown, or were shown, to impact the motor (i.e. locomotor, rotarod, and inclined-screen side effect-like tests) or conditioned taste aversion (CTA) behavior of mice. An evaluation of TDIQ as a releaser of monoamines was determined in rodent brain synaptosomes. The administration of TDIQ or fenfluramine inhibited the consumption of the snacks, and a comparison of their ED50 doses indicated that TDIQ is about 3 times more potent than fenfluramine (1.3 mg/kg vs. 4.2 mg/kg, respectively) in the sweet milk test and almost equipotent to fenfluramine (19.4 mg/kg vs. 18.4 mg/kg, respectively) in the chocolate pellet assay. The selectivity of the appetite suppressant effect of TDIQ was differentiated from that of fenfluramine on the basis that TDIQ exhibited a wide separation between its dose-response effects that suppressed snack consumption and its minimal effects in tests that measured behavioral impairment. Moreover, TDIQ was distinguished from fenfluramine in that it displayed very low potencies as a presynaptic releaser of monoamines. Finally, TDIQ (0.3 mg/kg-30.0 mg/kg) did not induce a conditioned taste aversion. TDIQ may represent a novel chemical entity that exhibits a significantly favorable therapeutic-like (i.e. appetite suppressant) effect to side effect-like ratio.

Animals↗

PubMed2005

Determinants of adolescent bicycle use for transportation and snacking behavior.

BACKGROUND: The prevalence of obesity has reached epidemic proportions in many countries and is largely due to behavioral factors that disrupt the energy balance. The purpose of the study was to test how well our conceptual model, combining features from the Theory of Planned Behavior and the Theory of Triadic Influence, explained two behaviors related to the energy balance, namely bicycle use for transportation and snacking behavior in a Dutch adolescent sample. METHODS: Data was gathered in an 1997 cross-sectional sample of adolescents (n = 3,859; mean age 14.8 years SD = 1.6) on snacking behavior, bicycle use, demographics, and potential environmental, cognitive and psychological determinants. Data was analyzed using bivariate correlations, multiple linear and binary logistic regression analyses. RESULTS: Less snacking behavior was associated with female gender and a more positive intention, a more positive attitude, and stronger perceived behavioral control towards restricting snacking. Students who used their bicycle for transportation were more likely to attend secondary education, to be native Dutch, to go to school in a less-urbanized city, to be younger, had a more positive intention and perceived stronger behavioral control and subjective norm towards bicycle use. CONCLUSIONS: The inclusion of environmental factors increased our understanding of bicycle use for transportation and snacking behavior in adolescents. The environmental factors are suggested to be taken into account in interventions aimed at changing these behaviors in more healthy directions.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2002

The effects of a confectionery snack on attention in young boys.

The relationship between consumption of a confectionery snack after an overnight fast and cognitive function was examined using a variety of cognitive tasks, including spatial memory, verbal memory, attention, visual perception and short-term memory, in a sample of 21 boys, ages 9-12 years. Performance on the vigilance attention task was significantly improved when the participants consumed a confectionery snack compared to consumption of a noncalorie snack. Participants had significantly higher hit rates and significantly lower miss rates after the confectionery snack. In addition, false alarm rates increased as a function of time for the placebo condition and decreased for the confectionery condition. Thus, the confectionery snack enhanced ability to stay on task for an extended period of time, enabling the children to more accurately identify target information, as well as correctly reject nontarget information. Analysis of the types of errors made also revealed that when the children were in the confectionery condition they were less likely to make more glaring errors. No significant differences were found in tests of digit span, verbal memory, spatial memory or visual perception.

Attention↗

PubMed1997

Effect of replacement of fat by nonabsorbable fat (sucrose polyester) in meals or snacks as a function of dietary restraint.

The effect of replacement of fat by nonabsorbable fat on energy intake and on feelings of hunger and satiety was assessed, in normal-weight dietary-restrained (n = 11), dietary-unrestrained (n = 13) and in postobese dietary-restrained women (n = 12), using 2 experimental designs. First, during breakfast and lunch on 2 sequential weekdays, 23 g of dietary fat was replaced by 23 g of a nonabsorbable fat. Second, dietary fat was replaced by a nonabsorbable fat in snacks consumed ad lib during a different week. Fat replacement in meals or in snacks did not result in changes in hunger and satiety ratings throughout the day. Replacement in meals yielded an energy intake reduction of 0.5 MJ/day (not significant) in dietary-unrestrained and in postobese dietary-restrained subjects; this reduction included 44% energy intake compensation. In normal-weight dietary-restrained subjects, energy intake reduction of 0.7 (p < 0.05) MJ/day was observed; this reduction included 22% energy intake compensation. Moreover, fat replacement in meals showed a shift in macronutrient composition from 35-40% energy from fat to 31-32% energy from fat. Replacement in snacks yielded an energy intake reduction of 0.4-0.5 MJ/day (not significant) in normal-weight dietary-restrained subjects and a reduction of 0.6-0.7 (p < 0.05) MJ/day in dietary-unrestrained and in postobese dietary-restrained subjects. In this situation, energy intake from snacks consisted of 48-78% energy from reduced-fat reduced-energy snacks, which implied a replacement of 10-15 g fat by 10-15 g SPE (sucrose polyester) and a shift in macronutrient composition from 35-40 percentage energy from fat to 33-36 percentage energy from fat. These results suggest short-term beneficial effects of fat replacement on energy and fat intake.

Adult↗

PubMed2000

Determinants of cariogenic snacking in adolescents in Belfast and Helsinki.

The aim of the study was to investigate the determinants of reported snack consumption in adolescents residing in Belfast, Northern Ireland and Helsinki, Finland. Ten % random samples of 14-15 yr old Belfast (n = 628) and Helsinki (n = 600) adolescents were obtained. A questionnaire assessed their demography, oral health knowledge, attitudes and the consumption of cariogenic snacks containing non-milk extrinsic sugars (NMES). Five hundred and eighty-nine (94%) questionnaires were returned in Belfast and 441 (74%) questionnaires in Helsinki. Belfast adolescents had significantly higher levels of oral health knowledge and higher consumption rates for snacks containing NMES. The Helsinki adolescents had more positive attitudes towards their oral health. Multivariant analysis showed that demography was the most direct determinant of cariogenic snacking. The acquisition of oral health knowledge played a minor role. There is a need to develop tailored and focused programmes to promote healthier snacking regimes in adolescents.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1983

Effects of a combination of common snack foods on some risk factors in heart disease and diabetes in rats.

Rats were fed ad libitum diets containing a combination of commonly consumed highly palatable snack foods, a commercial stock diet, or had access to both diets for 10-11 weeks. Rats fed snack foods only had elevations in risk factors associated with heart disease and/or diabetes including serum cholesterol, insulin response to glucose, and serum glucose. Triglyceride levels were not affected by diet. Removable fat pad weights (perirenal and epididymal) were greater in rats fed snack foods than in rats fed only stock diet, even though total body weights were less. Liver glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase activity was not affected by diet, but malic enzyme activity was greater in rats fed snack foods only than in the other two groups. These results indicate that some risk factors associated with heart disease and/or diabetes can be elevated by feeding a diet containing commonly consumed snack foods.

Adipose Tissue↗

PubMed1994

Effects of a milk chocolate bar per day substituted for a high-carbohydrate snack in young men on an NCEP/AHA Step 1 Diet.

This study compares the plasma cholesterol response with the isoenergetic substitution of a milk chocolate bar (46 g) given daily for a high-carbohydrate snack in healthy young men on a Step 1 Diet. Normocholesterolemic men (n = 42) were fed a Step 1 Diet for 21 d (run-in diet) followed by a 27-d experimental period during which they consumed the same diet plus either a milk chocolate bar or a high-carbohydrate snack; after this they consumed the run-in diet for 21 d followed by the other snack for 27 d. When subjects consumed a milk chocolate bar instead of the high-carbohydrate snack, high-density-lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol was 0.08 +/- 0.03 mmol/L higher (P < 0.01) and plasma triglycerides were 0.06 +/- 0.03 mmol/L lower (P < 0.05). Substitution of a milk chocolate bar for a high-carbohydrate snack did not adversely affect the low-density-lipoprotein-(LDL) cholesterol response to a Step 1 Diet despite an increase in total fat and saturated fatty acid content of the diet. This response may be due to stearic acid.

Adult↗

PubMed1982

Meal and snacking patterns of students.

A 1981 survey of 3,309 students in grades 3-12 enrolled in 135 Louisiana schools was used to determine their meal and snacking patterns. The data were analyzed according to three grade divisions: elementary, 3-6; junior high, 7-8; and senior high, 9-12. An analysis of variance was computed with grade division as the independent variable. Students' responses to questions concerning the consumption of meals, snacks and vitamin supplements, and tasting new, unfamiliar or disliked food were the dependent variables. A majority of students consumed three meals daily; however, breakfast was frequently skipped. Breakfast was usually eaten at home; 15% ate the school breakfast. Most students consumed the school lunch; many reported tasting new, unfamiliar or disliked food as part of these meals. Students snacked, most doing so in the afternoon. Students in grades 9-12 consumed significantly more snacks than their counterparts. Many snacks were purchased at school, primarily from a concession stand. Almost 50% took a vitamin supplement.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1996

International epidemiological and microbiological study of outbreak of Salmonella agona infection from a ready to eat savoury snack--II: Israel.

OBJECTIVES: To explain an increase in the incidence of salmonellosis caused by Salmonella agona in Israel between October 1994 and January 1995 in the light of an outbreak of S agona phage type 15 infection in England and Wales caused by consumption of a ready to eat savoury snack produced in Israel. DESIGN: Epidemiology of S agona in 1994-5 was analysed and two consecutive, case-control studies of 32 and 26 case-control pairs were performed. Phage typing and molecular methods were used to characterise strains of S agona isolated from cases and samples of the snack in Israel and England and Wales. RESULTS: The increase in the incidence of S agona between October 1994 and January 1995 was countrywide. Cases of infection with group B salmonella increased from 60% to 80% in children under 5 years old. In both case-control studies, cases consumed more of the snack than did controls (4.25 v 2.94 packets per week in the first study (P = 0.086) and 4.04 v 2.37 packets per week in the second study (P = 0.034)). When the two studies were combined there was a significant dose-response relation for the number of packets consumed weekly. Compared with consumption of less than two packets, the odds ratio was 1.43 for between two and six packets and 3.37 for seven or more packets (chi 2 for trend = 5.27, P = 0.02) S agona phage type 15 was isolated from a packet of the snack sold in Israel, and the strain was identical with those isolated from packets and cases in Israel and England and Wales. CONCLUSIONS: This outbreak of S agona was caused by the contamination of a snack produced in Israel. Even under modern operating conditions, large, widespread international outbreaks of foodborne disease can occur. The success of this investigation resulted from excellent international collaboration between public health authorities.

Case-Control Studies↗

PubMed2003

Trading nutrition for education: nutritional status and the sale of snack foods in an eastern Kentucky school.

Overweight and poor nutrition of children in the United States are becoming issues of increasing concern for public health. Dietary patterns of U.S. children indicate they are consuming too few fruits and vegetables and too many foods high in fat and sugar. Contributing to this pattern of food consumption is snacking, which is reported to be on the increase among adults and children alike. One place where snacking is under increased scrutiny, and where it is being increasingly criticized, is in U.S. schools, where snack foods are often sold to supplement inadequate budgets. This article takes a biocultural approach to understanding the nutritional status of elementary school children in a rural community in eastern Kentucky. It pays particular attention to the ways in which the school's nutrition environment shapes overweight and nutritional status for many of the children, focusing on the sale of snack foods and the reasons behind the principal's decision to sell snack foods in the school.

Anthropology, Cultural↗

PubMed1997

A pricing strategy to promote low-fat snack choices through vending machines.

OBJECTIVES: This study examined the role of price on purchases of low-fat snacks from vending machines. METHODS: Sales of low-fat and regular snacks were monitored in nine vending machines during a 4-week baseline, a 3-week intervention in which prices of low-fat snacks were reduced 50%, and 3 weeks postintervention. RESULTS: The proportion of low-fat snacks purchased was 25.7%, 45.8%, and 22.8% in the three periods, respectively. Total snack purchases did not vary by period. CONCLUSIONS: Reducing relative prices may be effective in promoting lower-fat food choices in the population. Vending machines may be a feasible method for implementing such nutrition interventions.

Commerce↗

PubMed1989

Effect of sucrose-containing snacks on blood glucose control.

To determine whether ingestion of sucrose-containing snacks would affect blood glucose (BG) control, 16 subjects with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus participated in a 5-day double-blind study at a diabetes camp. Eight subjects in the sucrose group ate sucrose-sweetened snacks twice a day, and 8 subjects in the control group ingested snacks that were sweetened with aspartame. The percentage of total daily calories derived from added sucrose was 7% for the sucrose group and 1% for the control group. Metabolic control was assessed by daily capillary BG measurements obtained before meals and the bedtime snack and by determination of serum fructosamine (F) concentrations on arrival at camp (day 0) and after 5 days on the study protocol (day 5). No significant difference was seen between the groups on day 0 (sucrose group [mean +/- SD]: BG 9.9 +/- 3.6 mM, F 3.54 +/- 0.38 mM; control group: BG 9.1 +/- 2.8 mM, F 3.74 +/- 0.71 mM) or day 5 (sucrose group: BG 8.8 +/- 2.6 mM, F 2.94 +/- 0.32 mM; control group: BG 7.4 +/- 2.8 mM, F 2.92 +/- 0.59 mM). We conclude that ingestion of sucrose, added to snacks in an amount up to 7% of total energy intake, does not adversely affect short-term BG control.

Adult↗

PubMed1998

Effects of consumption of snacks on simulated driving.

The present study investigated the effects of snacks on simulated driving for 24 volunteers who carried out a driving task three times. On each occasion a presnack baseline of 1 hr. of driving was taken. The snack conditions were (a) no snack (b) a 65 g-filled chocolate bar, and (c) an equicaloric snack of cheese and biscuits. Following the snack the volunteers then carried out another hour of driving. Analysis showed that following consumption of the chocolate the volunteers drove more carefully and hit the side of the track less often.

Automobile Driving↗