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PubMedDate not supplied

Strength training and hypercholesterolemia: an epidemiologic study of 8499 employed men.

PURPOSE: This study was conducted to determine the relation between the quantity of strength training and hypercholesterolemia (total cholesterol > or = 240 mg/dl) in men. A secondary objective was to ascertain the effects of age, smoking, alcohol use, body mass, and participation in physical activities other than strength training on the association between strength training and hypercholesterolemia. DESIGN: A cross-sectional research design was used. SETTING: Data were collected at the worksites of subjects throughout the United States. SUBJECTS: The participants were 8499 male employees of more than 50 companies. MEASURES: Blood was drawn while the subjects were in a fasting state, and a questionnaire was used to collect the demographic and lifestyle information, including the data about strength training. The subjects were divided into five groups according to their self-reported duration and frequency (i.e., quantity) of participation in strength training. RESULTS: Subjects who reported regular involvement in strength training had a reduced risk of hypercholesterolemia. However, after controlling for all the potential confounders, only the high-quantity lifters, those who completed 4 to 7 hours of strength training each week, maintained a reduced risk of hypercholesterolemia. CONCLUSIONS: High-quality strength training is strongly associated with a reduced risk of hypercholesterolemia, even after controlling for numerous, potentially confounding factors (odds ratio = .46; 95% confidence interval = .23 to .91).

Adult↗

PubMed2003

The influence of volume of exercise on early adaptations to strength training.

The purpose of this investigation was to compare the effects of single-set strength training and 3-set strength training during the early phase of adaptation in 18 untrained male subjects (age, 20-30 years). After initial testing, subjects were randomly assigned to either the 3L-1U group (n = 8), which trained 3 sets in leg exercises and 1 set in upper-body exercises, or the 1L-3U group (n = 10), which trained 1 set in leg exercises and 3 sets in upper-body exercises. Testing was conducted at the beginning and at the end of the study and consisted of 2 maximal isometric tests (knee extension and bench press) and 6 maximal dynamic tests (1 repetition maximum [1RM] tests). Subjects trained 3 days per week for 6 weeks. After warm-up, subjects performed 3 leg exercises and 4 upper-body exercises. In both groups, each set consisted of 7 repetitions (reps) with the load supposed to induce muscular failure after the seventh rep (7RM load). After 6 weeks of training, 1RM performance in all training exercises was significantly increased (10-26%, p < 0.01) in both groups. The relative increase in 1RM load in the 3 leg exercises was significantly greater in the 3L-1U group than in the 1L-3U group (21% vs. 14%, p = 0.01). However, the relative increase in 1RM load in the 3 upper-body exercises was similar in the 3L-1U group (16%) and the 1L-3U group (14%). These results show a superior adaptation to 3-set strength training, compared with 1-set strength training, in leg exercises but not in upper-body exercises during the early phase of adaptation.

Adaptation, Physiological↗

PubMed2006

Trunk rotational strength training for the management of adolescent idiopathic scoliosis (AIS).

Quantified trunk rotational strength training has shown promise as a non-operative management option for individuals with AIS. The purposes of our study are to test whether a quantified trunk rotational strength training protocol can increase trunk strength and stabilize or decrease curve size. Seven adolescents with AIS (5 female 2 male; mean 14 yrs +/- 2.6 yrs; mean Cobb 28 degrees +/- 6 degrees range 20 degrees -37 degrees) underwent four months of supervised trunk rotational strength training, and repeat strength test. Trunk strength in both directions increased significantly after training (p<0.05). Average Cobb angle decreased to 23 degrees +/- 11 degrees (range 6 degrees -35 degrees). Four individuals showed reduction (>5 degrees) in their original curve, and 3 remained the same (+/-5 degrees). The strength training protocol significantly increased isometric rotational strength and scoliosis was stabilized short term.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1985

Changes in isometric force- and relaxation-time, electromyographic and muscle fibre characteristics of human skeletal muscle during strength training and detraining.

Eleven male subjects (20-32 years) accustomed to strength training went through progressive, high-load strength training for 24 weeks with intensities ranging variably between 70 and 120% during each month. This training was also followed by a 12-week detraining period. An increase of 26.8% (P less than 0.001) in maximal isometric strength took place during the training. The increase in strength correlated (P less than 0.05) with significant (P less than 0.05-0.01) increases in the neural activation (IEMG) of the leg extensor muscles during the most intensive training months. During the lower-intensity training, maximum IEMG decreased (P less than 0.05). Enlargements of muscle-fibre areas, especially of fast-twitch type (P less than 0.001), took place during the first 12 weeks of training. No hypertrophic changes were noted during the latter half of training. After initial improvements (P less than 0.05) no changes or even slight worsening were noted in selected force-time parameters during later strength training. During detraining a great (P less than 0.01) decrease in maximal strength was correlated (P less than 0.05) with the decrease (P less than 0.05) in the maximum IEMGs of the leg extensors. This period resulted also in decreases (P less than 0.05) of the mean muscle-fibre areas of both fibre types. It was concluded that improvement in strength may be accounted for by neural factors during the course of very intensive strength training. Selective training-induced hypertrophy also contributed to strength development but muscle hypertrophy may have some limitations during long-lasting strength training, especially in highly trained subjects.

Adult↗

PubMed1998

A 10-week strength training program: effect on the motor performance of an unimpaired upper extremity.

OBJECTIVE: Muscle strength training is one of the most common therapy methods in physical therapy programs, and the usual goal of this treatment is to improve muscle strength. Little attention has been paid, however, to the effects of strength training on the other components of motor performance. This study examined the effects of a 10-week strength training program on the motor performance of the hand, including reaction time, speed of movement, tapping speed, and coordination in normal healthy volunteers. DESIGN: Before-after trial. SUBJECTS AND SETTING: Sixteen healthy women volunteers aged 25 to 45 years participated. INTERVENTION: Subjects accomplished a 10-week muscle strength training program of the upper extremities. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Reaction time, speed of movement, tapping speed, and coordination were measured three times on consecutive days, and muscle strength and electromyographic values of the right upper extremity were recorded once before the training period. After the training period, the same measurements were made as before the training. RESULTS: The 10-week strength training decreased choice reaction time by 6% (p < .01) and increased tapping speed by 3% (p < .01) and coordination by 5% (p < .05). Speed of movement increased, but this change was not statistically significant. All the measured isometric muscle strengths and electromyographic activations upon maximum isometric contraction increased. CONCLUSIONS: A 10-week strength training of the upper extremities increased muscle strength and some motor performance functions of the hand, including choice reaction time, tapping speed, and coordination.

Adult↗

PubMed1999

Maximal strength training improves work economy in trained female cross-country skiers.

PURPOSE: The present study examines the hypothesis that maximal strength training improves work economy and anaerobic threshold in trained female cross-country skiers while working on a ski ergometer. METHODS: Fifteen female cross-country skiers (17.9 +/- 0.3 yr, 166.7 +/- 1.3 cm, 60.1 +/- 1.9 kg, and 55.3 +/- 1.3 mL x kg(-1) x min(-1)) participated in the study. Eight skiers made up the high-intensity strength-trained group, and seven served as the control group. Endurance performance was tested on a specially instrumented ski ergometer. Strength training and testing simulated double poling in cross-country skiing. RESULTS: A significant (P < 0.001) improvement in double-poling economy on the ski ergometer was observed among the strength-trained group. Anaerobic threshold did not change during the experimental period for either group. After a 9-wk training period, time to exhaustion increased from 5.2 (+/-0.9) to 12.3 (+/-1.6) min (P < 0.001) and from 4.0 (+/-0.9) to 6.3 (+/-0.9) min (P < 0.01) for the strength and control group, respectively. Time to exhaustion was significantly higher (P < 0.001) for the strength group compared with the control group after training. One repetition maximum increased 14.5% (1.8) (P < 0.001) in the strength group but was unchanged in the control group. Expressed in relation to peak force at one repetition maximum, strength training resulted in a significant reduction in the relative available force employed working on the ski ergometer (P < 0.01). Time to peak force at maximal aerobic velocity on the ski ergometer was significantly reduced in the strength-training group (P < 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: It is concluded that maximal strength training in the upper-body improved the double-poling performance by improved work economy. Work economy was improved by a reduction in relative workload and time to peak force while double poling.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1988

Muscular coordination and strength training. Implications for injury rehabilitation.

Strength training is commonly used in the rehabilitation of muscles atrophied as a result of injury and/or disuse. Studies on the effects of conventional leg extension training in healthy subjects have shown the changes to be very task-specific to the training manoeuvre itself. After conventional leg extension training for the quadriceps muscle the major improvement was in weightlifting ability with only small increases in isometric strength. The maximum dynamic force and power output during sprint cycling showed no improvement. These results suggest that the major benefit of this type of training is learning to coordinate the different muscle groups involved in the training movement rather than intrinsic increases in strength of the muscle group being trained. Other studies have shown changes in strength to be specific to the length and speed at which the muscle has been trained. The implication for rehabilitation is that strength training for isolated muscle groups may not be the most effective way of increasing functional ability. As the major changes are task-specific it may be better to incorporate the training into task-related practice. This would have the advantage of strengthening the muscle groups affected whilst increasing performance in those activities which are required in daily life.

Humans↗

PubMed2003

Strength training vs. aerobic training: cardiovascular tolerance in elderly adults.

The aim of the present study was to evaluate cardiovascular tolerance to two different types of exercise (strength training vs. aerobic training) in healthy elderly subjects. Nineteen healthy elderly subjects aged 65-81 were studied. All the subjects participated in a 6-month combined physical activity program of gymnastics (2 times/week; 50 min.) and strength training (2 times/week; 40-50 min.). The gymnastics sessions consisted of general physical activity that is usually offered to elderly people and included warm-up, aerobic exercises, strength training, some balance and coordination exercises, recreational games and cool-down. The strength training consisted of two sets of 10 to 12 repetitions at 70% of one repetition maximum (1 RM) for "women's double chest"; "leg extension"; "overhead press; "seated leg curl"; "lateral raise"; "leg press" and "abdominal machine". Cardiovascular tolerance was evaluated both by measuring heart rate (HR) continuously (Polar Vantage NV) during the sessions and by measuring systolic (SBP) and diastolic blood pressure (DBP) with an electronic sphygmomanometer at five different times (baseline, after warm-up, 15-20 min., 30-40 min. and after cool-down). Moreover, in order to measure the response according to the type of exercise, in strength training sessions, SBP and DBP were also evaluated in different machines (legs vs. arms). Comparison between the two different types of exercise (gymnastics vs. strength training) and between different machines was performed by an unpaired Student's t test. The level of significance was set at p < 0.05. The results showed no significant differences in HR, SBP and DBP values between the two training types. Both sessions were performed at appropriate intensity without exaggerated cardiovascular response. In strength training, exercises that involved the legs presented higher rises in SBP and DBP values than those performed with the arms. These data suggest that, if appropriate techniques are used, strength training as well as gymnastics can be performed by healthy older subjects so long as basic rules for exercise in this population are followed. Furthermore, the data indicate a greater cardiovascular hemodynamic response after strength exercises with the legs than with the arms.

Age Factors↗

PubMed2002

Adaptation of cardiac morphology and function to endurance and strength training. A comparative study using MR imaging and echocardiography in males and females.

Left ventricular (LV) dimensions and function and maximal oxygen uptake (VO(2)max) were measured in endurance-trained (10 male, m, 10 female, f), strength-trained athletes (8 m, 10 f) and untrained subjects (9 m, 10 f). LV dimensions were measured using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and echocardiography and the results were equal irrespective of method. Endurance-trained m and f had significantly higher LV volumes and mass than both strength-trained and controls. No VO(2)max or dimensional differences were seen between strength-trained and untrained subjects. In endurance-trained males, LV volumes and mass/kg bw were higher than in endurance-trained females. There was no significant gender difference for strength-trained or untrained subjects regarding body weight-related heart dimensions. It is concluded that LV dimensions and volumes are strongly dependent on oxygen transport capacity in normal subjects practising different modes of training, and that the gender differences, if LV dimensions are related to aerobic work capacity, are smaller than previously reported.

Adaptation, Physiological↗

PubMed2000

Strength training for children and adolescents.

The potential benefits of youth strength training extend beyond an increase in muscular strength and may include favorable changes in selected health- and fitness-related measures. If appropriate training guidelines are followed, regular participation in a youth strength-training program has the potential to increase bone mineral density, improve motor performance skills, enhance sports performance, and better prepare our young athletes for the demands of practice and competition. Despite earlier concerns regarding the safety and efficacy of youth strength training, current public health objectives now aim to increase the number of boys and girls age 6 and older who regularly participate in physical activities that enhance and maintain muscular fitness. Parents, teachers, coaches, and healthcare providers should realize that youth strength training is a specialized method of conditioning that can offer enormous benefit but at the same time can result in serious injury if established guidelines are not followed. With qualified instruction, competent supervision, and an appropriate progression of the volume and intensity of training, children and adolescents cannot only learn advanced strength training exercises but can feel good about their performances, and have fun. Additional clinical trails involving children and adolescents are needed to further explore the acute and chronic effects of strength training on a variety of anatomical, physiological, and psychological parameters.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2001

Progressive resistance muscle strength training of hospitalized frail elderly.

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether frail elderly patients recuperating from acute illnesses could safely participate in and gain appreciable improvement in muscle strength from progressive resistance muscle strength training. DESIGN: Muscle strength (one repetition maximum), functional abilities (sit-to-stand maneuver and 20-sec maximal safe gait speed), and body composition were measured before and at the conclusion of a 10-wk program of lower limb progressive resistance muscle strength training. The nonrandomized study was conducted in a 30-bed geriatric rehabilitation unit of a university-affiliated Veterans Affairs hospital and a 28-bed transitional care unit of a community nursing home. Participants included 19 recuperating elderly subjects (14 male, 5 female; 13 ambulatory, 6 nonambulatory) >64 yr (mean age, 82.8+/-7.9 yr). RESULTS: The one repetition maximum increased an average of 74%+/-49% (median, 70%; interquartile range, 38%-95%, and an average of 20+/-13 kg (P = 0.0001). Sit-to-stand maneuver times improved in 15 of 19 cases (79%). Maximum safe gait speeds improved in 10 of 19 cases (53%). Four of the six nonambulatory subjects progressed to ambulatory status. No subject experienced a complication. CONCLUSIONS: A carefully monitored program of progressive resistance muscle strength training to regain muscle strength is a safe and possibly effective method for frail elderly recuperating from acute illnesses. A randomized control study is needed to examine the degree to which progressive resistance muscle strength training offers advantages, if any, over routine posthospital care that includes traditional low-intensity physical therapy.

Activities of Daily Living↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Systematic strength training as a model of therapeutic intervention. A controlled trial in postmenopausal women with osteopenia.

Physical exercise is often recommended as a therapeutic tool to combat pre- and postmenopausal loss of bone density. However, the relationship between training dosage (intensity, duration, frequency) and the effect on bone density still is undergoing discussion. Furthermore, the exercise quantification programs are often described so inadequately that they are neither quantitatively nor qualitatively reproducible. The aim of this investigation was to determine whether a clearly defined training of muscle strength, under defined safety aspects, performed only twice weekly, can counteract bone density loss in women with postmenopausal osteopenia. Data from 16 women in the training group (age, 63.6 +/- 6.2 yr) and 15 women in the control group (age, 67.4 +/-9.7 yr), of comparable height and weight, were evaluated. Strength training was performed for 6 mo as continually adapted strength training, providing an intensity of about 70% of each test person's one repetition maximum. Bone mineral density of lumbar vertebrae 2 to 4 and the femoral neck was measured by dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry. Maximum performance in watts and parameters of hemodynamics were controlled with a bicycle ergometer test to maximal effort. In addition, metabolic data were assessed. In the lumbar spine and femoral neck, the training group showed no significant changes, whereas the control group demonstrated a significant loss of bone mineral density, especially in the femoral neck (P<0.05). The strength increase was highly significant in all exercised muscle groups, rising to about 70% above the pretraining status (P<0.001). Heart rate and blood pressure data indicated a slight economization, metabolism was not significantly influenced. Based on these findings, we conclude that continually adapted strength training is an effective, safe, reproducible, and adaptable method of therapeutic strength training, following only two exercise sessions per week.

Absorptiometry, Photon↗

PubMed2004

Adults with cerebral palsy benefit from participating in a strength training programme at a community gymnasium.

PURPOSE: This study examined whether a community-based progressive resistance strength training programme could improve muscle strength and functional activity in a group of adults with cerebral palsy with high support needs. METHOD: Using a single group pre-post clinical design, 10 adults (7 males, 3 females; mean age 47.8 SD 5.7 years) with cerebral palsy and high support needs completed 4 weeks of introduction and familiarization, followed by a 10-week progressive resistance strength training programme in a community gymnasium. Participants were measured for muscle strength, locomotion speed and timed sit-to-stand. RESULTS: After establishment of a stable baseline from weeks 2 to 5 with no systematic change and a high degree of association (r>0.86), participants increased leg strength by 22.0% (p=0.02), arm strength by 17.2% (p=0.01) and improved performance of sit-to-stand (p=0.02) during the 10-week strength training intervention. CONCLUSIONS: This study adds to the accumulating evidence that strength training can be beneficial for people with cerebral palsy by demonstrating benefits for adults with cerebral palsy and high support needs who are subject to decline in physical function associated with the ageing process.

Adult↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Strength training early after myocardial infarction.

BACKGROUND: Many activities of daily living require significant amounts of muscular strength. Time lines for current strength training guidelines preclude many myocardial infarction patients from receiving strength training as part of their cardiac rehabilitation program. This study was designed to examine the effectiveness and safety of low-to-moderate level strength training in patients early after myocardial infarction. METHODS: Fifty-seven low-risk men ( < 61 years of age, 6-16 weeks post-infarction) were randomly assigned to a control group or one of three treatment groups. All groups trained aerobically, three times per week for 12 weeks. The three treatment groups performed additional strength exercises on each training day of the last 10 weeks. These groups differed in their strength training stimulus with Group 20 performing 20 reps of 20% of 1 repetition maximum (1 RM), Group 40 performing 10 repetitions of 40% of 1 RM, and Group 60 performing 7 repetitions of 60% of 1 RM. RESULTS: Maximal strength remained unchanged in the control group (+0.5%), but increased in Groups 20, 40, and 60 by +10.5%, +11.9%, and +13.5%, respectively. The increases in strength in the treatment groups were all significantly different (P < .001) from the results of the control group, but were not significantly different from each other. For the three treatment groups, 30 of 42 subjects had one or more cardiovascular complication (arrhythmias, angina, ischemia, hypertension, hypotension) during the aerobic exercises as compared to only 1 subject with complications during the resistive exercises (P < .01). CONCLUSIONS: In selected patients, low-to-moderate intensity strength training performed early after infarction is effective and may have lower rates of cardiovascular problems than aerobic exercise.

Adult↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Strength training for children and adolescents.

Strength, or resistance, training for young athletes has become one of the most popular and rapidly evolving modes of enhancing athletic performance. Early studies questioned both the safety and the effectiveness of strength training for young athletes, but current evidence indicates that both children and adolescents can increase muscular strength as a consequence of strength training. This increase in strength is largely related to the intensity and volume of loading and appears to be the result of increased neuromuscular activation and coordination, rather than muscle hypertrophy. Training-induced strength gains are largely reversible when the training is discontinued. There is no current evidence to support the misconceptions that children need androgens for strength gain or lose flexibility with training. Given proper supervision and appropriate program design, young athletes participating in resistance training can increase muscular strength and do not appear to be at any greater risk of injury than young athletes who have not undergone such training.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1997

Effects of detraining subsequent to strength training on neuromuscular function in patients with inflammatory arthritis.

The effects of detraining subsequent to strength training on neuromuscular function were examined in 39 recent-onset rheumatoid arthritis (RA) patients. Eighteen age- and sex-matched healthy people (H) served as controls. Patients were randomly allocated either to the experimental group (PE), who carried out progressive strength training for 6 months, or to the control group (PC), who maintained only their habitual physical activities. After 6 months, PE returned to their earlier physical activities and strength training was terminated. At baseline, the maximal strength of the trunk extensors (not significant), grip strength and maximal dynamic strength and the shape of the force-time curve of the knee extensors were lower in PE and PC (P < 0.05-0.001) than in H. Strength training in PE led to remarkable increases (P < 0.05-0.001) in the maximal strength of all muscle groups without changes in the shape of the force-time curve. The increases in muscle strength in PE obtained by strength training were lost to a great degree during the detraining period for the isometric trunk extension (P < 0.01) and flexion (P < 0.01) strength and for the dynamic knee extension strength (P < 0.05), but not for the grip strength. In PC, trunk extension and flexion strength decreased significantly throughout the study period. At the post-test, all the strength values in both patient groups were much lower than in H. RA is a chronic disease which seems to need continuous physical exercise with sufficient intensity to minimize/prevent the loss of muscle strength and functional capacity.

Adult↗

PubMed2004

Effectiveness and safety of strength training in rheumatoid arthritis.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: As muscle weakness is common in patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA), strength training is considered to be an important cornerstone of the nonpharmacological treatment. The training methods have varied widely between the studies. Thus, the purpose of this review is to discuss effectiveness and safety but also basic principles and specificity of strength training. RECENT FINDINGS: Moderate or high-intensity strength training has been effective and well-tolerated method to increase or maintain muscle strength in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. No deleterious effects on disease activity and pain were observed. More information is needed regarding long-term effects of strength training on functional capacity, bone mineral density, and radiologic progression. SUMMARY: Moderate or high-intensity strength training programs have better training effects on muscle strength in RA than low-intensity programs. The type of exercises, intensity, and frequency of training are key factors in the effectiveness of training. It is, however, essential to maintain the training routine to obtain long-term benefits from it.

Arthritis, Rheumatoid↗

PubMed2004

Strength training increases insulin-mediated glucose uptake, GLUT4 content, and insulin signaling in skeletal muscle in patients with type 2 diabetes.

Strength training represents an alternative to endurance training for patients with type 2 diabetes. Little is known about the effect on insulin action and key proteins in skeletal muscle, and the necessary volume of strength training is unknown. A total of 10 type 2 diabetic subjects and 7 healthy men (control subjects) strength-trained one leg three times per week for 6 weeks while the other leg remained untrained. Each session lasted no more than 30 min. After strength training, muscle biopsies were obtained, and an isoglycemic-hyperinsulinemic clamp combined with arterio-femoral venous catheterization of both legs was carried out. In general, qualitatively similar responses were obtained in both groups. During the clamp, leg blood flow was higher (P < 0.05) in trained versus untrained legs, but despite this, arterio-venous extraction glucose did not decrease in trained legs. Thus, leg glucose clearance was increased in trained legs (P < 0.05) and more than explained by increases in muscle mass. Strength training increased protein content of GLUT4, insulin receptor, protein kinase B-alpha/beta, glycogen synthase (GS), and GS total activity. In conclusion, we found that strength training for 30 min three times per week increases insulin action in skeletal muscle in both groups. The adaptation is attributable to local contraction-mediated mechanisms involving key proteins in the insulin signaling cascade.

Biological Transport↗