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PubMed1995

Human papillomavirus and cervical neoplasia: a case-control study in Taiwan.

As part of a large-scale, community-based cervical neoplasia screening project in rural Taiwan, a case-control study was undertaken to evaluate the etiologic role of human papillomavirus (HPV) infection in this mainly monogamous (2% reported having multiple sexual partners) female population. A total of 88 biopsy-confirmed cases and 261 cytologically normal controls were selected for the study. The case group included 40 cases of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) 1, 9 of CIN 2, 36 of CIN 3 and 3 cases of invasive cancer. Cervical swabs collected at screening from study subjects were tested for HPV DNA by an LI consensus primer polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based technique. HPV DNA was found in 92% of high-grade cases (CIN 2-3 and invasive cancer); 54% of low-grade cases (CIN 1); and 9% of controls. HPV was significantly associated with both high-grade and low-grade cervical neoplasia. As reported in Western countries, HPV 16 was the predominant type among HPV-positive high-grade cases. However, HPVs 52 and/or 58 combined were the most common types among HPV-positive low-grade cases and controls. Among women without any high-risk HPV infection (types 16, 18, 31 or 45), those with multiple-type HPV infection had a higher risk for high-grade cervical neoplasia than those with single-type infection. Overall, 91% of high-grade cases and 50% of low-grade cases could be attributed to HPV infection. Our results show that, even in this monogamous population, HPV is the major risk factor for high-grade cervical neoplasia.

Adult↗

PubMed1997

Sexual behaviour patterns and other risk factors for HIV infection in rural Tanzania: a case-control study.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the association between HIV infection and patterns of sexual behaviour and other risk factors in a rural Tanzanian population in a case-control study, nested within a randomized trial of improved sexually transmitted disease treatment. METHODS: All HIV-positive patients from the baseline survey of the randomized trial were eligible as cases. Cases (n = 338) and controls (a random sample of one in eight HIV-negative persons; n = 1078) were interviewed about risk factors for HIV infection using a structured questionnaire. RESULTS: A significantly higher HIV prevalence was found among men and women not currently employed in farming [men: odds ratio (OR), 2.08; women: OR, 3.65], women who had travelled (OR, 3.27), educated women (OR, 4.51), and widowed/ divorced people compared with those currently married (men: OR, 3.10; women: OR, 3.54). Two spouse-related factors were significantly associated with HIV, even after adjustment for the sexual behaviour of the index case: HIV was more prevalent in men with younger spouses (P = 0.020 for trend) and in women married to men currently employed in manual work, office work or business (OR, 2.20). In women only, blood transfusions were associated with a higher HIV prevalence (OR, 2.40), but only a small population attributable fraction (4%). There was an increased HIV prevalence associated with increasing numbers of injections. Reported number of lifetime sexual partners was significantly associated with HIV infection (women: OR, 7.33 if > or = 10 lifetime partners compared with < or = 1; men: OR, 4.35 for > or = 50 compared with < or = 1). After adjustment for confounders, male circumcision was associated with a lower HIV prevalence (OR, 0.65; P = 0.11). CONCLUSIONS: In these rural communities, many HIV infections occur through sexual transmission. Some people are at high risk of HIV infection through large numbers of sex partners, whereas some are at risk through their spouse or regular partner. The role of circumcision in HIV transmission is unclear. Commercial sex seems to play a negligible role in HIV transmission in these communities. Our results confirm marked heterogeneity in HIV risk, indicating the scope for risk reduction strategies.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1997

Trends in attitudes and behaviour relevant to AIDS in Ugandan community.

Behaviour-related preventive measures are still the main weapon against the spread of AIDS. Intensive AIDS prevention and control activities conducted over the last ten years need to be evaluated on the basis of their impact on attitudes and behaviour relevant to AIDS. The main objective of this study was to document and evaluate trends in attitudes and behaviour relevant to AIDS in a Ugandan community over a seven year follow up period. The study was a longitudinal community-based closed cohort. Periodic surveys were conducted on the study group and data on condom use, attitudes about condoms, rates of sexual partner change and reported frequency of sexually transmitted diseases were collected in all surveys. Data reported are from surveys conducted during 1987, 1992 and 1994 in which similar questions were asked and emerging trends identified. Reported condom use ever, increased from 3.9% in 1987 to 10.1% in 1992 and to 27.2% in 1994. This is a 7.3 fold increase over seven years. In females, reported use of condoms increased from 1.2% in 1987 to 18.2% in 1994 while in males it increased from 6.9% to 35.3% over the same period. In this study group there are still more people opposed to the ongoing intensive condom campaign than there are those supporting it. The percentage supporting the campaign was 28% in 1987, 26% in 1992 and 40.8% in 1994. This is a rising trend. The rate of sexual partner change has declined. During the baseline survey, 26.5% of the respondents reported that they had intercourse with two or more sexual partners in the six months period before the interview. This proportion decreased to 6.8% in 1992 but then increased to 17.1% in 1994. During the baseline survey, 2.6% of the study group reported that they had sexual intercourse with six or more partners during the six months period before the interview but during the 1992 and 1994 surveys, no one reported sexual intercourse with more than five partners during a similar period. The reported frequency of sexually transmitted diseases during a twelve month recall period, reflecting STD incidence, decreased from 3.5% in 1992 to 1.9% in 1994. In conclusion during the seven year followup period of this community-based closed cohort, we have identified a sharp increase in condom use, a reduced rate of sexual partner change and a decline in the reported frequency of sexually transmitted disease. The percentage of people supporting the condom campaign is rising. These are some of the outstanding outcomes of the AIDS prevention activities conducted in the country over the last 10 years.

Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome↗

PubMed1992

A survey of infertility, surgical sterility and associated reproductive disability in Perth, Western Australia.

Infertility, surgical sterility and associated reproductive disability were studied in a stratified cluster sample of 1,511 couples with women aged 16 to 44 years resident in metropolitan Perth in 1988. Sixteen couples were omitted from analysis because of missing data. The proportion of couples affected by current infertility was 3.5 per cent (53 of 1,495), and 67.9 per cent of these (36 of 53) had a reproductive disability, meaning that they were unable to achieve their desired level of reproductive function. Those affected by surgical sterility accounted for 37.1 per cent (555 of 1,495), and of these couples 2.0 per cent (11 of 555) had a reproductive disability. Empirically, the prevalence of both infertility and reproductive disability peaked at ages 30 to 34 years in the female partner. Of the factors studied, infertility was associated with surgery for a ruptured appendix, a history of pelvic inflammatory disease and number of sexual partners. In 10 of the 47 couples with reproductive disability, contraceptive sterilisation had been a cause of later regret. Most other cases were due to infertility. Almost one half of couples with reproductive disability had sought treatment. The affected couples had at least one child from the current union in 23 of the 47 cases of reproductive disability. The results support the need for development of a strategy to prevent infertility and other causes of reproductive disability.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1989

A critical review of the physics and statistics of condoms and their role in individual versus societal survival of the AIDS epidemic.

Condom failure rates for HIV are substantially greater than for pregnancy, even for highly motivated people who may reach the limit set by allowed manufacturing imperfections. This makes condoms ineffective for lifelong protection from HIV-infected sexual partners; therefore, in general, condoms provide inadequate risk reduction for the individual. Nevertheless, they are sufficiently effective that if everyone used condoms, the AIDS epidemic would stop. Quantitative public health goals to reduce the "reproductive rate" of HIV from an estimated 4-12 people infected per infected person to below 1 are needed. Government and scientific testing of condoms could be improved statistically and by utilizing relevant physics.

Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome↗

PubMed2004

Identification of critical domains and putative partners for the Caenorhabditis elegans spindle component LIN-5.

Successful cell division requires proper assembly, placement and functioning of the spindle apparatus that segregates the chromosomes. The Caenorhabditis elegans gene lin-5 encodes a novel coiled-coil component of the spindle required for spindle positioning and chromosome segregation. To gain further insights into lin-5 function, we screened for dominant suppressors of the partial loss-of-function phenotype associated with the mutation lin-5(ev571ts ), and isolated 68 suppressing mutations. Eight out of the ten suppressors sequenced contained intragenic missense mutations immediately upstream of the lesion in lin-5(ev571ts ). These probably help to stabilize protein-protein interactions mediated by the coiled-coil domain. This domain was found to be required for binding to several putative LIN-5 interacting (LFI) proteins identified in yeast two-hybrid screens. Interestingly, interaction with the coiled-coil protein LFI-1 was specifically reduced by the lin-5(ev571ts ) mutation and restored by a representative intragenic suppressor mutation. Immunostaining experiments showed that LIN-5 and LFI-1 may co-localize around the kinetochore microtubules during metaphase, indicating potential interaction in vivo. The coiled-coil domain of LIN-5 was also found to mediate homodimerization, while the C-terminal region of LIN-5 was sufficient for interaction with GPR-1, a recently identified component of a LIN-5 spindle-regulatory complex. A single amino-acid substitution in the N-terminal region of LIN-5, encoded by the e1457 allele, abolished all LIN-5 interactions. Taken together, our results indicate that the spindle functions of LIN-5 depend on interactions with multiple protein partners, and that these interactions are mediated through several different domains of LIN-5.

Amino Acid Sequence↗

PubMed1994

Incidence of HIV-1 infection in a rural region of Uganda.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the incidence of infection with HIV-1 and the risk factors associated with seroconversion in three geographical strata of a rural Ugandan district. DESIGN: Serological, sociodemographic, and behavioural surveys of everyone aged 13 or more in 21 randomly selected communities at baseline and one year later. SETTING: Rural population of Rakai district, southwestern Uganda, residing in main road trading centres, secondary trading villages, and agricultural villages. SUBJECTS: In 1989, 1292 adults provided a blood sample and interview data; one year later, 778 survivors (77%) who had been seronegative at baseline provided follow up data. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Incidence of HIV infection in relation to individual characteristics and risk factors, including place of residence. RESULTS: Incidence of HIV infection in all adults was 2.1/100 person years of observation (SE 0.5 (95% confidence interval 1.1 to 3.1)); in people aged 15-39 the incidence was 3.2/100 person years. Incidence was highest in men and women aged 20-24 (9.2/100 person years (3.9) and 6.8/100 person years (2.9) respectively). Risk factors significantly associated with seroconversion were age 24 and under and two or more sexual partners. Between the surveys the proportion of all respondents reporting high risk behaviour (two or more partners) significantly increased from 8.9% to 12.3%. CONCLUSIONS: Despite preventive programmes and substantial knowledge about AIDS the incidence of HIV infection remains high in this rural population. Prevention aimed at vulnerable rural communities is urgently needed to contain the HIV epidemic.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1993

Psychosocial factors associated with condom use among African-American drug abusers in treatment.

Although strategies for decreasing injection drug use have met with moderate success, efforts to decrease high-risk sexual behaviors have been less successful. Because condom use reduces HIV transmission, it is critically important to identify the attitudinal, emotional, and behavioral factors associated with using condoms. This study evaluated the relationship between condom use and various psychological and behavioral variables among heterosexual, African-American, cocaine-dependent men within the context of the AIDS Risk Reduction Model (ARRM). Subjects who used condoms (n = 52) reported significantly higher levels of self-efficacy, condom use skills, and sexual communication with partners than non-users (n = 84). However, the groups did not differ in perceived susceptibility, anxiety concerning HIV transmission, response efficacy, or knowledge regarding HIV. These findings suggest that future interventions focus on enhancing self-efficacy and condom use skills, as well as eroticizing condom use.

Adult↗

PubMed1997

Risk factors for sexually transmitted diseases among women attending family planning clinics in Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania.

BACKGROUND: Identification of risk factors for sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) assists in development of treatment algorithms, which are potentially important components of STD control when microbiologic facilities are limited. METHODS: A cross-sectional study was performed to assess STD and HIV risk factors of 2285 women attending three family planning clinics in Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania during 1991-92. Women were interviewed and examined for signs of STDs. Specimens were taken for laboratory diagnosis of HIV, other sexually transmitted organisms, and Candida albicans. RESULTS: The prevalence of gonorrhoea was found to be 4.2%, prevalence of trichomoniasis was 14.3%, and positive syphilis serology was found in 2.5% of women. Unmarried women were at increased risk of trichomoniasis (age-adjusted OR = 1.48 95% CI [1.12, 1.95]), gonorrhoea (age-adjusted OR = 1.81 95% CI [1.14, 2.86]) and syphilis (age-adjusted OR 1.5 [0.84, 2.68]). An increasing number of sexual partners in the past five years was associated with an increased risk of all STDs. Current use of the oral contraceptive pill was positively associated with gonorrhoea, multivariate OR = 1.75 95% CI [1.05, 2.93]. The prevalence of candidiasis was 11.5% and was not associated with any of the demographic or behavioural risk factors examined. Clinical diagnostic algorithms for STDs in this study population had relatively low sensitivity and low positive predictive value. CONCLUSION: Being unmarried and having a higher number of sexual partners were consistently associated with each STD, while the associations for other risk factors varied between STDs, emphasising the complexity of STD distribution. Further development of diagnostic algorithms and other methods for screening women for STDs are needed to reduce the impact of STDs and HIV in developing countries.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1993

Behavioral and sociodemographic risks for frequent visits to commercial sex workers among northern Thai men.

OBJECTIVE: The transmission of HIV-1 in Thailand has recently been attributed to exposure to infected commercial sex workers (CSW). We sought to identify risk factors for patterns of CSW visits among northern Thai men. DESIGN: Retrospective recall of lifetime and recent CSW visits and associated risk factors were obtained by interview. SETTING: Two military bases in northern Thailand. PARTICIPANTS: We enrolled two cohorts (n = 2417) of young men, aged 19-23 years, who were conscripted into the Royal Thai Army and Air Force from six provinces in northern Thailand in May and November 1991. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Frequency of self-reported lifetime and recent sex with CSW. RESULTS: Multivariate results showed that lower socioeconomic status, early first intercourse and substance-use factors (alcohol, marijuana, other drugs, and smoking) associated with lifetime and recent sex with CSW. Sexual intercourse with other female partners, lower price paid at last CSW visit and frequency of condom use with CSW did not differentiate frequent from infrequent CSW visitors. CONCLUSIONS: Limits in the frequency of sex with CSW, improved condom practices and reduction of drinking prior to CSW visits would all appear to provide substantial protection from exposure to HIV-1 in this setting.

Adult↗

PubMed2006

Alternative splicing in protein associated with Myc (Pam) influences its binding to c-Myc.

We recently identified Pam (for protein associated with c-Myc), as a binding partner for the tuberous sclerosis complex (TSC) protein tuberin in brain. The highly conserved Pam homologs in Drosophila and C. elegans are neuron-specific proteins that regulate synaptic growth. The Pam gene contains 83 exons and encodes a 4,641-amino-acid polypeptide with a predicted molecular weight of approximately 510 kDa. In a previous study, we demonstrated that Pam is expressed as two forms, approximately 450 kDa in rat embryonic and a approximately 350 kDa in rat adult brain. Here we have extended that work to show the approximately 450 kDa form is expressed in rat embryonic kidney, heart, and lung and in rat cell lines, and the approximately 350 kDa form is expressed in adult rat tissues as well as in human and mouse brain and human and mouse cell lines. To understand the size difference, we investigated alternative splicing of Pam in brain and detected six isoforms in the Myc-binding region resulting from splicing of exon 53, and three new exons, 52A, 56, and 56A. We also demonstrate that the presence of exon 52A in Pam significantly enhances binding to Myc, suggesting functional importance of this alternative splicing. The presence of Pam in many cellular compartments, its spliced variants, as well as its multiple binding partners, including tuberin, make it a complex, yet intriguing protein in the nervous system.

Alternative Splicing↗

PubMed1992

HIV risk factors in three geographic strata of rural Rakai District, Uganda.

OBJECTIVES: To examine risk factors for HIV-1 infection in three geographic strata (main road trading centers that service local and international traffic, small trading villages on secondary dirt roads that serve as foci for local communications, and agricultural villages off main and secondary roads) in Rakai District, Uganda. DESIGN AND METHODS: Serological, sociodemographic, knowledge/behaviors and health survey conducted in 21 randomly selected community clusters; complete data were collected for 1292 consenting adults. RESULTS: Fifteen per cent of the men and 24% of the women were HIV-1-positive. On univariate analysis, several sociodemographic and behavioral factors were significantly associated with risk of HIV infection, including age, place of residence, travel, occupation, marital status, number of sex partners, sex for money or gifts, history of sexually transmitted disease (STD), and history of injections. On multivariate analysis, age, residence and number of sex partners remained significantly associated with HIV infection in both sexes; a history of STD and not having been circumcised were significant in men. There was a significant interaction between place of residence and reported number of sex partners: for any given level of sexual activity, the risk of HIV infection was markedly increased if the background community prevalence was high. CONCLUSION: Sexual transmission appears to be the primary behavioral risk factor for infection, but the risks associated with this factor vary substantially between the three geographic strata. These data can be used to design targeted interventions.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1997

Factors influencing condom use among heterosexual users of injection drugs and crack cocaine.

OBJECTIVES: To study factors that influence the self-reported use of condoms among injection drug users and crack smokers. STUDY DESIGN: A cross-sectional design was used to collect data from drug-using heterosexual men (n = 247) and women (n = 107). RESULTS: Participants were largely African American (79.4%), male (69.8%), and unmarried (90.1%). The mean age for men was 39.9 years, 35.5 years for women. Drug user groups consisted of individuals who used both crack cocaine and injection drugs (40.1%), noninjecting crack smokers (33.1%), and non-crack-smoking injection drug users (26.8%). Daily injection drug or crack use was reported by 62.9% of the sample. One third of the sample reported recent vaginal sex with more than one partner. More than 70% of the participants frequently used drugs when having sex. Logistic regression showed that individuals who were high when having vaginal sex were less likely to use condoms than people who were not high (odds ratio [OR] 0.82; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.68-0.99); individuals whose partners got high when having sex were more likely to report condom use (OR 1.20; 95% CI, 1.01-1.42); individuals were less likely to use condoms when having sex with a main partner (OR 0.40; 95% CI, 0.20-0.80); individuals who believed it was important to use condoms were more likely to use condoms (beta = 0.57, P < 0.00); and people who believed condoms reduced sexual pleasure were less likely to use condoms (beta = -0.53, P < 0.00). CONCLUSIONS: In addition to being sensitive to partner characteristics, sex risk-reduction interventions targeting users of injection drugs or crack must address the widespread use of psychoactive drugs that occurs immediately before and during sex because such use presents a significant impediment to the employment of safer-sex techniques that rely on condoms. Until such interventions are in place, access to drug abuse treatment is a critical dimension of human immunodeficiency virus and other sexually transmitted disease prevention.

Adult↗

PubMed1991

Adolescent women's contraceptive decision making.

A modified rational decision model incorporating salient events and social influences (particularly from sexual partners) is used to analyze adolescent women's consistent use of oral contraceptives (OCs) over a six-month period. Data are taken from a panel study of 308 clients of an inner-city family planning clinic. Expected OC use was computed for each subject on the basis of subjective expected utility (SEU) theory, and is found in multivariate analyses to be a significant predictor of actual OC use. In addition, variables representing baseline and follow-up partner influences, the salience of pregnancy for the subject, and positive side effects of OCs during the first months of use are found to predict OC use. Partner's support of OC use during follow-up and positive side effects of OCs are found to predict OC use among subjects for whom OC use was not the expected decision according to baseline SEU. Implications of the findings for models of adolescents' contraceptive behavior and for clinicians are discussed.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1990

Association of oral contraceptive use and human papillomaviruses in invasive cervical cancers.

In a study of 197 cases of histologically confirmed invasive cervical cancer, 61% of biopsies were positive for human papillomavirus (HPV) DNA by Southern or dot-blot hybridization. An association between detection of HPV DNA and oral contraceptive use was observed when HPV-positive and -negative cases were compared. Women reporting recent or long-term (greater than 4 yrs) oral contraceptive use were at 2.3 and 2.9-fold increased risks of HPV positivity, respectively. An increased risk of HPV positivity was also associated with formal education and with urban residence, while long-term smoking was negatively associated with HPV detection. A non-significant trend of increasing risk of HPV positivity with increasing number of sexual partners of the women and of the male partners of monogamous women was observed. Detection of HPV DNA was not associated with other cervical cancer risk factors examined, including age at first coitus, number of pregnancies, and Pap smear screening history. Our findings suggest either an interaction between HPV infection and oral contraceptive use in the genesis of cervical cancer or an increased expression of HPV genome in neoplasms of oral contraceptive users. These observations also support a multifactorial model of cervical cancer causation.

Adult↗

PubMed2001

Direct interaction of the Rab3 effector RIM with Ca2+ channels, SNAP-25, and synaptotagmin.

To define the role of the Rab3-interacting molecule RIM in exocytosis we searched for additional binding partners of the protein. We found that the two C(2) domains of RIM display properties analogous to those of the C(2)B domain of synaptotagmin-I. Thus, RIM-C(2)A and RIM-C(2)B bind in a Ca(2+)-independent manner to alpha1B, the pore-forming subunit of N-type Ca(2+) channels (EC(50) = approximately 20 nm). They also weakly interact with the alpha1C but not the alpha1D subunit of L-type Ca(2+) channels. In addition, the C(2) domains of RIM associate with SNAP-25 and synaptotagmin-I. The binding affinities for these two proteins are 203 and 24 nm, respectively, for RIM-C(2)A and 224 and 16 nm for RIM-C(2)B. The interactions of the C(2) domains of RIM with SNAP-25 and synaptotagmin-I are modulated by Ca(2+). Thus, in the presence of Ca(2+) (EC(50) = approximately 75 microm) the interaction with synaptotagmin-I is increased, whereas SNAP-25 binding is reduced. Synaptotagmin-I binding is abolished by mutations in two positively charged amino acids in the C(2) domains of RIM and by the addition of inositol polyphosphates. We propose that the Rab3 effector RIM is a scaffold protein that participates through its multiple binding partners in the docking and fusion of secretory vesicles at the release sites.

Amino Acid Sequence↗

PubMed2000

The basic helix-loop-helix transcription factors dHAND and eHAND exhibit dimerization characteristics that suggest complex regulation of function.

dHAND and eHAND are basic helix-loop-helix (bHLH) transcription factors expressed during embryogenesis and are required for the proper development of cardiac and extraembryonic tissues. HAND genes, like the myogenic bHLH genes, are classified as class B bHLH genes, which are expressed in a tissue-restricted pattern and function by forming heterodimers with class A bHLH proteins. Myogenic bHLH genes are shown not to form homodimers efficiently, suggesting that their activity is dependent on their E-protein partners. To identify HIPs (HAND-interacting proteins) that regulate the activity of the HAND genes, we screened an 9.5-10.5-day-old mouse embryonic yeast two-hybrid library with eHAND. Several HIPs held high sequence identity to eHAND, indicating that eHAND could form and function as a homodimer. Based on the high degree of amino acid identity between eHAND and dHAND, it is possible that dHAND could also form homodimers and heterodimers with eHAND. We show using yeast and mammalian two-hybrid assays as well as biochemical pull-down assays that eHAND and dHAND are capable of forming both HAND homo- and heterodimers in vivo. To investigate whether HAND genes form heterodimers with other biologically relevant bHLH proteins, we tested and show HAND heterodimerization with the recently identified Hairy-related transcription factors, HRT1-3. This finding is exciting, because both HRT and HAND genes are coexpressed in the developing heart and limb and both have been implicated in establishing tissue boundaries and pattern formation. Moreover, competition gel shift analysis demonstrates that dHAND and eHAND can negatively regulate the DNA binding of MyoD/E12 heterodimers in a manner similar to MISTI and Id proteins, suggesting a possible transcriptional inhibitory role for HAND genes. Taken together, these results show that dHAND and eHAND can form homo- and heterodimer combinations with multiple bHLH partners and that this broad dimerization profile reflects the mechanisms by which HAND genes regulate transcription.

Basic Helix-Loop-Helix Proteins↗

PubMed1990

HIV infection surveillance in Mogadishu, Somalia.

A group of 89 prostitutes and 45 patients attending sexually transmitted disease clinics in Mogadishu, Somalia were examined for evidence of HIV infection. Both groups reported more than 1 sexual partner routinely and had sexual contacts with prostitutes. There was a significant amount of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) in these two groups, with 11.2% and 6.7% respectively being culture positive for N. gonorrhoea. Among the prostitutes, 28.1% were positive for antibodies to T. pallidum while only 4.4% of the STD patients were positive. One isolate of N. gonorrhoea was resistant to penicillin. All study participants were negative for antibodies to HIV suggesting an extremely low prevalence of HIV in high risk behaviour groups in the capital city of Somalia.

Adult↗