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The Mona Lisa smile is presented as a possible example of facial muscle contracture that develops after Bell's palsy when the facial nerve has undergone partial wallerian degeneration and has regenerated. The accompanying synkinesis would explain many of the known facts surrounding the painting and is a classic example of Leonardo da Vinci as the compulsive anatomist who combined art and science.
An articulated skeleton in Edinburgh University's Anatomy Museum of "Howison, The Cramond Murderer", shares a show-case with the articulated skeleton of "William Burke, The Murderer". While the murderous activities of William Burke are well known, because of his association and activities with William Hare, and because they sold the bodies of their victims to Dr Robert Knox, the anatomist, little these days is recalled of Howison. He was executed for the murder of a woman in Cramond in December 1831, and was hanged on 21st January 1832. The case is important because he was the last individual executed before the implementation of the Anatomy Act of 1832. Accordingly, under the conditions of the previous Act, of 1752, entitled "An Act for better preventing the horrid Crime of Murder", his body had to be handed across to the surgeons to be "dissected and anatomized", before it could be buried.
Between 1752 and 1832, the bodies of hanged murderers were dissected or gibbeted. During this period, 38 murderers were executed in the West of Scotland. The bodies of at least 23 were dissected in Glasgow. The stories of these murders are recounted. Insight is also given into the attitudes of the public and the anatomists to dissection of executed murderers.
John Cleland, a surgeon-anatomist, trained at Edinburgh and Glasgow before gaining the Chair of Anatomy at Queens College Galway, Ireland when that institution was of a mere 14 years standing. This outline of his life, career and contemporaries provides some insight into the Scottish tradition of teaching and research in the anatomical sciences of the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
John Sheldon, an eccentric surgeon-anatomist, of considerable brilliance, was the first Englishman to ascend in a balloon. He became insane in 1787, after which he moved from London. He re-established himself at Exeter and was elected surgeon to the hospital in 1797.
Henry Duncan Spens ("Harry") Goodsir was one of the younger brothers of John Goodsir, Professor of Anatomy at the University of Edinburgh from 1846 to 1867. Harry Goodsir qualified with the LRCS Edinburgh diploma in 1840, and was an anatomist and naturalist of the highest promise. He was Conservator of the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh from 1843 until 1845, when he was appointed assistant surgeon and naturalist to the Franklin Expedition. This sailed to the Arctic seas under Sir John Franklin, to find the North-West Passage, but was lost. Its fate was never determined satisfactorily, although several subsequent expeditions attempted to do so.
The term spinal accessory nerve plexus may be defined as the spinal accessory nerve with all its intra- and extracranial connections to other nerves, principally cranial, cervical, and sympathetic. The term is not new. This review examines its applied anatomy in head and neck cancer and atherosclerosis. Over the centuries, general studies of neural and vascular anatomy and embryology formed a basis for the understanding upon which the plexus is described. During the past century, its anatomy and blood supply have come to be better understood. The importance of almost all of the plexus to head, neck, and upper extremity motor and sensory functions has come to be realized. Because of this understanding, surgical neck dissection has become progressively more conservative. This historical progression is traced. Even the most recent anatomic studies of the spinal accessory nerve plexus reveal configurations, new to many of us. They were probably known to classical anatomists, and not recorded in readily available literature, or not recorded at all. Human and comparative anatomic studies indicate that the composition of this plexus and its blood supply vary widely, even though within the same species their overall function is very nearly the same. Loss of any of these structures, then, may have very different consequences in different individuals. As a corollary to this statement, data are presented that the spinal accessory nerve itself need not be cut during surgical neck dissections for severe impairment to occur. In addition, data are presented supporting the theory that atherosclerosis by obstructing vessels to this plexus and its closely connected brachial plexus will very likely result in their ischemic dysfunction, often painful. Finally evidence, as well as theory, is stated concerning anatomic issues, methodology, outcome, and possible improvements in surgical procedures emphasizing conservatism.
A controversy between the well-known medical teacher Herman Boerhaave and the anatomist Frederik Ruysch on the nature of the glands shows how chemical knowledge had a decisive influence on the way in which Boerhaave perceived the anatomy and working of the glands. While Ruysch maintained that the glands are no more than the extremities of arteries and act as mechanical instruments separating the fluids into smaller particles, Boerhaave examined the glands as membranous follicles in which chemical processes prepare the fluids for their different uses in the body. Boerhaave, in other words, turned to the chemical properties of particles rather than the vessels that contain them. Boerhaave's viewpoint was new and resulted from his belief in chemistry as the discipline par excellence for the explanation of the most basic processes in the body. More than anything else, the controversy shows how chemistry was not contained within fixed disciplinary boundaries, but had a decisive influence on Boerhaave's construction of anatomical knowledge.
The Digital Anatomist Foundational Model of Anatomy (FMA) is a large semantic network of more than 100,000 terms that refer to the anatomical entities, which together with 1.6 million structural relationships symbolically represent the physical organization of the human body. Evaluation of such a large knowledge base by domain experts is challenging because of the sheer size of the resource and the need to evaluate not just classes but also relationships. To meet this challenge, the authors have developed a relation-centric query interface, called Emily, that is able to query the entire range of classes and relationships in the FMA, yet is simple to use by a domain expert. Formative evaluation of this interface considered the ability of Emily to formulate queries based on standard anatomy examination questions, as well as the processing speed of the query engine. Results show that Emily is able to express 90% of the examination questions submitted to it and that processing time is generally 1 second or less, but can be much longer for complex queries. These results suggest that Emily will be a very useful tool, not only for evaluating the FMA, but also for querying and evaluating other large semantic networks.
The unique characteristics of the primate (particularly human) fetal adrenal were first realized in the early 1900s when its morphology was examined in detail and compared with that of other species. The unusual architecture of the human fetal adrenal cortex, with its unique and disproportionately enlarged fetal zone, its compact definitive zone, and its dramatic remodeling soon after birth captured the interest of developmental anatomists. Many detailed anatomical studies describing the morphology of the developing human fetal adrenal were reported between 1920 and 1960, and these morphological descriptions have not changed significantly. More recently, it has become clear that fetal adrenal cortical growth involves cellular hypertrophy, hyperplasia, apoptosis, and migration and is best described by the migration theory, i.e. cells proliferate in the periphery, migrate centripetally, differentiate during their migration to form the functional cortical zones, and then likely undergo apoptosis in the center of the cortex. Consistent with this model, cells of intermediate phenotype, arranged in columnar cords typical of migration, have been identified between the definitive and fetal zones. This cortical area has been referred to as the transitional zone and, based on the expression of steroidogenic enzymes, we consider it to be a functionally distinct cortical zone. Elegant experiments during the 1950s and 1960s demonstrated the central role of the primate fetal adrenal cortex in establishing the estrogenic milieu of pregnancy. Those findings were among the first indications of the function and physiological role of the human fetal adrenal cortex and led Diczfalusy and co-workers to propose the concept of the feto-placental unit, in which DHEA-S produced by the fetal adrenal cortex is used by the placenta for estrogen synthesis. Tissue and cell culture techniques, together with improved steroid assays, revealed that the fetal zone is the primary source of DHEA-S, and that its steroidogenic activity is regulated by ACTH. In recent years, function of the human and rhesus monkey fetal adrenal cortical zones has been reexamined by assessing the localization and ontogeny of steroidogenic enzyme expression. The primate fetal adrenal cortex is composed of three functionally distinct zones: 1) the fetal zone, which throughout gestation does not express 3 beta HSD but does express P450scc and P450c17 required for DHEA-S synthesis; 2) the transitional zone, which early in gestation is functionally identical to the fetal zone but late in gestation (after 25-30 weeks) expresses 3 beta HSD, P450scc, and P450c17, and therefore is the likely site of glucocorticoid synthesis, and 3) the definitive zone, which lacks P450c17 throughout gestation but late in gestation (after 22-24 weeks) expresses 3 beta HSD and P450scc, and therefore is the likely site of mineralocorticoid synthesis. Indirect evidence, based on effects of P450c21 deficiency and maternal estriol concentrations, indicate that the fetal adrenal cortex produces cortisol and DHEA-S early in gestation (6-12 weeks). However, controversy exists as to whether cortisol is produced de novo or derived from the metabolism of progesterone, as data regarding the expression of 3 beta HSD in the fetal adrenal cortex early in gestation are conflicting. During the 1960s, Liggins and colleagues demonstrated that in the sheep, cortisol secreted by the fetal adrenal cortex late in gestation regulates maturation of the fetus and initiates the cascade of events leading to parturition. Those pioneering discoveries provided insight into the mechanism underlying the timing of parturition and therefore were of particular interest to obstetricians and perinatologists confronted with the problems of preterm labor. However, although cortisol emanating from the fetal adrenal cortex promotes fetal maturation in primates as it does in sheep, its role in the regulation of primate parturition, unlike that in sheep
No commemoration of the bicentennial of Mozart's death would be complete without some consideration of that premature yet predictable demise. Mozart's premonitions of death are well known and apparently played a role in the composition of the K.626 Requiem and perhaps other works. His death has traditionally been ascribed to infectious causes, chiefly rheumatic fever or post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis, exacerbated by intemperance and chronic penury. Pathology has been difficult because of his supposed burial in a pauper's grave, the location and contents of which were later supposedly lost. Mozart's burial place in St. Mark's Cemetery in Vienna was known and, in the parlance of the day, "reorganized" a decade later, as the occupants of plots were disinterred to make room for the more recently decreased. A skull believed to the Mozart's was saved by the successor of the gravedigger who had supervised Mozart's burial, and then passed into the collections of the anatomist Josef Hyrtl, the municipality of Salzburg, and the Mozarteum museum (Salzburg). Forensic reconstruction of soft tissues related to this skull reveals substantial concordance with Mozart's portraits. The skull suggests premature closure of the metopic suture, which has been suggested on the basis of his physiognomy. A left temporal fracture and concomitant erosions raise the question of chronic subdural hematoma, which would be consistent with several falls in 1789 and 1790 and could have caused the weakness, headaches, and fainting he experienced in 1790 and 1791. Aggressive bloodletting to treat suspected rheumatic fever could have decompensated such a lesion to produce his death on December 5, 1791.
Philipp Friedrich Arnold and Ludvig Levin Jacobson were two of the greatest anatomists of the 19th century. Within this paper their backgrounds and their contribution to the development of various aspects of head and neck anatomy are considered.
The virtual medical laboratory (VML) was conceived to provide an Internet-accessible resource, offering access for clinicians and scientists to an invaluable data archive at the institute of Laryngology and Otology, London. The Institute is home to the largest collection of temporal bone, laryngeal, skull and sinus sections in Europe. The skull and sinus collections include an extensive section consisting of animal material. These were contributions from zoos around the world. Over the last 50 years, samples have been carefully sectioned and stained by specialized technicians to produce histology slices of most regions of the head and neck. The aim of the project is to create a virtual medical laboratory, which will provide access to archived histological material as well as computerized tomography and magnetic resonance data. Central to this aim is the reconstruction of the internal anatomy of the temporal bone from two-dimensional histology slices, to create three-dimensional views that can be used for anatomical simulation and surgical training in otolaryngology. State-of-the-art three-dimensional reconstruction and rendering technology allows us to develop such a model. Computer-generated simulation could be made available to all hospitals in which otolaryngology is practised, via digital communication networks. We aim to develop core technology in our own specialty that is applicable to other fields of higher education, which have not been exposed to such modern teaching modalities. This has the potential to become an invaluable teaching resource for anatomists, surgeons and other scientists.
The designation 'Adam Bogen' (arch) which is used in the German literature as a description of the thick medial cortex of the femoral neck is incorrect. This arch was described by Robert Adams (1795-1871), who was an Irish anatomist and surgeon. Adams, Colles and Smith were outstanding surgeons who described fractures of the proximal femur in detail during the first half of the 19th century and who together formed the Dublin Surgical School. The most important aspects of these fractures were described between 1818 and 1839.
When Bologna's political and intellectual elites had control over the university and associated institutions during the eighteenth century, a few women were allowed to participate in medical fields not typically associated with their gender. Laura Bassi could occasionally teach and debate on anatomy at the university, and the practical anatomist Anna Morandi Manzolini could make contributions to the research and teaching of anatomy. With the arrival of the French in Bologna in 1796, the control of the university and associated institutions passed from the local elite to the Ministry of Public Instruction in Milan. This article shows that a few women were awarded degrees in medicine, surgery, and pharmacy from the University of Bologna when the French were in control-however, these women, unlike Bassi and Morandi, were directed to fields deemed appropriate to their gender, such as the training of midwives, or apothecary practice within female institutions.
The hominoid mandibular symphysis has received a great deal of attention from anatomists, human biologists, and paleontologists. Much of this research has focused on functional interpretations of symphyseal shape variation. Here, we examine the two-dimensional cross-sectional shape of the adult mandibular symphysis for 45 humans, 42 chimpanzees, 37 gorillas, and 51 orangutans using eigenshape analysis, an outline-based morphometric approach. Our results demonstrate that a large proportion of the variation described by the first eigenshape correlates with proposed functional adaptations to counteract stresses at the mandibular midline during mastication. Subsequent eigenshapes describe subtle aspects of shape variation in the mandibular symphysis. The morphology associated with these eigenshapes does not conform with functional predictions, nor does it show a relationship with sexual dimorphism. However, eigenshapes provide for considerable taxonomic discrimination between the four taxa studied and may consequently prove useful in the analysis of fossil material. Comparison with elliptical Fourier analysis of the mandibular symphysis identifies eigenshape analysis as providing superior taxonomic discrimination. The results presented here demonstrate that the cross-sectional shape of the mandibular symphysis results from a complex interplay of functional and nonfunctional influences and for the first time identifies and quantifies the specific aspects of variation attributable to these factors.
Throughout the Origin of Species, Darwin contrasts his theory of natural selection with the theory that God independently created each species. This makes it seem as though the Origin offers a scientific alternative to a theological worldview. A few months after the Origin appeared, however, the eminent anatomist Richard Owen published a review that pointed out the theological assumptions of Darwin's theory. Owen worked in the tradition of rational morphology, within which one might suggest that evolution occurs by processes that are continuous with those by which life arises from matter; in contrast, Darwin rested his account of life's origins on the notion that God created one or a few life forms upon which natural selection could act. Owen argued that Darwin's reliance on God to explain the origins of life makes his version of evolution no less supernatural than the special creationist that Darwin criticizes: although Darwin limits God to one or a few acts of creation, he still relies upon God to explain life's existence.
The immense history leading to our current understanding and treatment of pituitary pathology is inextricably linked to the evolution of the understanding of the numerous functions of the hypophysis cerebri as the "master gland" of the endocrine system. When the anatomists of old encountered this small organ sequestered "like a nugget in the innermost of Chinese boxes" at the base of the brain, they had no inkling of its importance in the control of multiple target organs in the human body. It would ultimately take two millennia and a vast amount of clinical and laboratory research for its role in the body to eventually become more completely appreciated.