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The expectation of receiving alcohol influenced the drinking behavior of alcoholics and social drinkers resulting in increases in the amount of placebo consumed and higher estimates by both alcoholics and social drinkers of the percentage of alcohol in the placebo.
In Experiment 1 eleven food-deprived rats were tested in a schedule-induced drinking paradigm under both tail-pinch and non-tail-pinch conditions. Tail-pinch produced a strong suppression of schedule-induced drinking, licking, licks per milliliter, bar presses, and number of reinforcers received during 30-min test sessions. Experiment 2 showed that the narcotic antagonist naloxone (2 and 4 mg/kg) did not reverse the tail-pinch suppression of schedule-induced drinking and food-reinforced bar pressing. Experiment 3 demonstrated that the suppression of schedule-induced drinking by tail-pinch could not be attributed to a suppression of drinking behavior in general, as tail-pinch had no effect on deprivation-induced drinking. The failure of naloxone to reverse this blockade suggests that endogenous opiate systems do not play a very important role in the suppression of schedule-induced polydipsia by tail-pinch. It was suggested that the combination of both the schedule-induction paradigm and the tail-pinch procedure increased arousal levels to such a high level that all behaviors were suppressed.
Indicators of self-efficacy and motivation to change (stage of change) with regard to drinking and to drinking and driving were examined in a sample of Driving Under the Influence (DUI) offenders in a court-mandated intervention program. Self-administered questionnaires that contained pertinent measures were completed by 210 consenting offenders (34 of whom were female) during the intervention program. A factor analysis of efficacy and stages of change items showed distinct factors for the respective constructs; however, drinking and drinking-and-driving items of the same type (e.g., efficacy or stages of change) tended to codefine common factors, and the factor pattern suggested that motivations and efficacy for changing drinking behavior are critical for avoiding the drinking-and-driving sequence. Most participants were classified into the action stage in both drinking and drinking-and-driving domains. In regression analysis, contemplation of action and self-efficacy measures pertaining to drinking and driving predicted prior crashes and arrests; however, after accounting for recent alcohol problems, action items pertaining to drinking and driving were the best predictors of recent drinking-and-driving incidents.
AIMS: The potential importance of alcohol outcome expectancies in the initiation and maintenance of drinking has been supported by studies showing that these expectancies are present before drinking begins, and that they predict drinking both cross-sectionally and longitudinally. Although initiation of drinking behavior may be influenced by expectancy, subsequent drinking experience may modify expectations. We used structural modeling techniques to investigate the relative influence of expectancy and drinking in a three-wave longitudinal study of Norwegian adolescents. DESIGN: Survey incorporating self-administered questionnaires. SETTING: Twenty-two schools in Hordaland County on the west coast of Norway. PARTICIPANTS: Nine hundred and twenty-four seventh-grade students; 45.7% female. MEASUREMENTS: Alcohol use (frequency, quantity, drunkenness); the Norwegian version of the Alcohol Expectancy Questionnaire for adolescents. FINDINGS: Among students who were already drinkers upon entry into the study, expectations of positive social effects of alcohol predicted drinking longitudinally. Among those who began drinking during the study, these social expectancies predicted drinking initiation, but drinking also influenced subsequent expectancy in the early stages of drinking. CONCLUSIONS: These results support a reciprocal relationship of drinking to positive expectancy, highlighting the importance both of expectancies on influencing drinking, and of early drinking experiences on the development of positive expectancies.
AIMS: To examine rates and patterns of marijuana and other illicit drug use among different types of students and colleges in 1999, and changes in use since 1993. DESIGN: Self-administered mail survey (Harvard School of Public Health College Alcohol Study). SETTING: One hundred and nineteen nationally representative US 4-year colleges. PARTICIPANTS: A representative sample of 15,403 randomly selected students in 1993, 14,724 students in 1997 and 14,138 students in 1999. MEASUREMENTS: Self-reports of marijuana and other illicit drug use in the past 30 days and in the past year, cigarette use, drinking behavior, and age of initiation of smoking, drinking and using marijuana. FINDINGS: The prevalence of past 30-day marijuana use rose from 12.9% to 15.7% between 1993 and 1999, an increase of 22%. Almost all of this change occurred by 1997. An increase was observed at 66% of the 119 colleges. The prevalence of 30-day and annual marijuana use increased in nearly all student demographic subgroups except for Hispanic students, and at all types of colleges except for colleges with low binge drinking rates. Rates of illicit drug use in the past 30 days increased slightly for other illicit drugs in the 4-year interval except for LSD. Nine out of 10 students (91%) who used marijuana in the past 30 days used other illicit drugs, smoked cigarettes and/or engaged in binge drinking. Of students who used any other illicit drug in the past 30 days, 87% used another substance or binge drank. Twenty nine per cent of past 30-day marijuana users first used marijuana and 34% began to use marijuana regularly at or after the age of 18, when most were in college. CONCLUSIONS: Use of marijuana and other illicit drugs has increased on campuses across the United States in most student subgroups and all types of colleges. This may reflect earlier increases in middle schools and secondary schools among this cohort. However, nearly one-third of students initiated marijuana use in college and one of three began to use it regularly. Intervention efforts should be directed at college students, as well as secondary school students.
The authors examined the drinking patterns of 198 first admission nonalcoholic psychiatric patients to determine the relationship among drinking behavior, severity of pathology, and prognosis. Heavy drinking in the psychiatric sample was not associated with increased levels of pathology and poor prognosis. To the contrary, among these nonalcoholic patients the abstainers and occasional drinkers showed the most severe pathology and poorest prognosis of all drinking groups.
OBJECTIVE: We studied the relationship of self-efficacy expectancies measured during inpatient alcohol treatment and time to first drink and time to relapse following hospitalization. We also examined whether the relationship of in-hospital self-efficacy and posttreatment drinking outcome differed by gender. METHOD: We measured self-efficacy expectancies using the Situational Confidence Questionnaire (SCQ) in 100 subjects (59 men) during inpatient treatment for alcohol dependence. We followed subjects monthly for 1 year and examined the relationship of their in-hospital SCQ scores to posttreatment drinking behavior, as measured by time to first drink, time to relapse and percent abstinent days. RESULTS: Self-efficacy during hospitalization was related to relapse during the 12 months following hospitalization. Survival analysis demonstrated that in-hospital SCQ scores greater than 45 were predictive of better drinking outcomes. The median number of days to relapse after treatment were 30 and 135, respectively, in those with in-hospital SCQ scores less than or equal to 45 compared with those with SCQ scores greater than 45. There were no gender differences in self-efficacy measured during hospitalization, nor were there gender differences in the relationship of self-efficacy to time to relapse. However, men with SCQ scores less than or equal to 45 had fewer abstinent days during follow-up. CONCLUSIONS: Among both men and women being treated for alcohol dependence, a cut-off score of 45 on the SCQ may be especially important in helping clinicians assess patients who are at high risk for more rapid return to drinking after hospitalization.
Investigations of the changes in ambulation and water drinking behavior of SHR were carried out and an attempt was made to determine the influence of cold exposure on the systolic blood pressure (SBP) and urinary catecholamines excretion (UCA) in SHR. Twenty week old male SHR-Okamoto strain (approximately 350 g) were used. The automatic Ambulo-Drinkometer was used to determine ambulatory activity and water drinking in SHR. UCA was determined by the trihydroxyindole method using high performance liquid chromatography. Cold exposure was performed for a period of 24 hours in a room maintained between 0--3 degrees C. It was observed that ambulatory activity and water drinking of SHR in dark phase were higher than those in the light phase (P less than 0.001). Significant increases in urinary norepinephrine (UNE), urinary epinephrine (UE), and urinary dopamine (UDA) contents as well as in urine volume were observed in the dark phase as compared with those in the light phase. SBP was significantly elevated after cold exposure. It was also demonstrated that cold exposure produced a significant increase in UNE and UE both in light and dark phases. Significant increase in UDA in cold stressed SHR was observed in dark phase. Although at room temperature (20 +/- 2 degrees C) significant difference in UCA between light and dark phases was observed, during cold exposure no significant difference was apparent. These findings suggest that temperature modulation induces changes in circadian rhythms of urinary CA excretion in SHR.
Intraventricular injection of angiotensin-II (100 ng) increased the latency period and decreased the amount of food intake in the hungry rats. Preliminary administration of saralasin (100 ng) blocked the inhibitory effect of angiotensin-II on food consumption. In contrast to the above mentioned intraperitoneal injection of angiotensin-II (10 ng/kg) 10 min before food and water admission results in the tendency to increase the food intake. And the same application of angiotensin-II 60 min before food and water admission increased by 49% of food intake in hungry rats. Saralasin (50 ng/kg) given prior to the angiotensin-II administration blocked the angiotensin-II effects. Moreover a significant decrease in the food intake was found after intraperitoneal injection of saralasin only. No significant changes in the drinking behavior in response to the intraventricular and intraperitoneal drugs administration were registered.
UNLABELLED: For the subgroups indicated, a few questions/issues are relevant to all three (women, elderly, minorities): 1. Heterogeneity of the special populations, for example, Hispanic-Americans are from different countries with different cultures. Women and the elderly vary by age, education, income, social class, health status, etc., to say nothing of ethnicity/color/religion. 2. Of therapy modalities, professional and indigenous, which are more efficacious? 3. Are group-specific therapies needed, or will sensitivity to a particular group work as well? WOMEN: Stereotypes and myths have prevailed, for example, the long-standing belief that women have poorer prognoses than male alcoholics. When female and male alcoholics are compared, women report more positive family history, a later onset of drinking and problems, more marital disruption, more comorbidity, etc. The review of treatment outcomes (Vannicelli, 1986) showed few significant gender differences in outcomes. Research recommendations include biological and genetic studies, women's view of and use of therapeutic modalities, and outcome studies of different modalities, including all female facilities. ELDERLY: Medications are used more by older patients, and such patients are more likely to experience adverse drug reactions. In the moderate social use of alcohol, there are conflicting reports and the extent of elderly use awaits decisive study. The etiology of problem drinking by older persons is studied rarely. An attempt has been made to explain onset later in life (vs. earlier onset) based on the stresses of aging (loss, loneliness, health problems, etc.); research results have not been supportive. Consequences of older persons' heavy drinking seems to be most often alcohol-related medical disorders, although there are often familial and social consequences. Atkinson (1995) recommended the development of elder-specific outcome measures, study of the efficacy of different treatment modalities, and study of the efficacy of treatment for patients in elder-specific and mixed age groups, etc. MINORITIES: Each of the federally mandated minority groups in the United States is heterogeneous. The epidemiology of use and abuse of alcohol and other drugs is well studied, but treatment issues are not. AMERICAN INDIANS: There are more than 200 tribes; each has its own customs and culture. Some tribes are abstinent; others have big problems with abuse of alcohol, and other drugs. Orthodox treatment methods, used by professional counselors and therapists, have not worked very well. RECOMMENDATION: study of traditional Indian forms of healing practices combined with other treatment; this would be a culture-sensitive model. BLACK AMERICANS: This includes not only African-Americans but people from the Caribbean, Central and South America, etc. Among African-Americans, there is a history of ambivalence toward alcohol: on the one hand, a tolerant "nightclub culture" and on the other, church beliefs in temperance and abstinence. There is "respectable drinking" and "problem drinking," most often defined as solitary or public drinking. The primary source of support is considered familial, so people tend to be distrustful of therapy from "strangers." They are anonymous in promoting sobriety and study of subcultural norms and the history of slavery. Earlier ethnographic works (Liebow, 1967) were of "street-corner men," slum dwellers, ghetto norms; recommended: studies of middle-class African-American life and drinking behaviors. ASIAN-AMERICANS: A study in Los Angeles reports differences among Chinese, Japanese, Filipinos, and Koreans in drinking beliefs and behavior. Of these groups, the Japanese in Japan and the Japanese-Americans report the largest number of heavy drinkers. It is, however, considered a private matter, even when associated with social problems. Interestingly, there is an organization called the All Nippon Sobriety Association (like Alcoholics Anonymous). RECOMMENDATIONs: studies of generational differences among Japanese-Americans in use and efficacy of treatment. For the Chinese-Americans, who are fairly permissive about older persons' drinking and share a belief in the health benefits of alcohol, a gender/gerontological study is recommended. HISPANIC-AMERICANS: As a total group, they drink more and present more alcohol-related problems than other immigrant minorities. Age, ethnicity, and gender patterns in permissiveness to drink need to be explored. Treatment sought is often in pentecostal churches and Centros for Espiritismo. Hispanics are not likely to seek help in formal clinical settings which emphasize alcohol consumption as the basic, core problem. They are more likely to seek out and be responsive to the perception of their drinking problem as sin and a rejection of Jesus. It is not that minorities do not recognize problems and seek out help. They are not likely to seek out the health profession's offering of outpatient clinics, residential treatments, etc.
The effect of leucine5-enkephalin (Leu-enkephalin) administered into the lateral (LV) or fourth (4V) cerebroventricle on angiotensin II (ANG II)-stimulated increase in blood pressure, plasma vasopressin concentration ([AVP]), and drinking behavior was determined in conscious rats. Leu-enkephalin (20, 50, or 100 micrograms) was injected into the LV (5 microliters) or 4V (2 microliters) less than or equal to 15 s before ANG II (50 or 500 ng, LV). LV and 4V administration of Leu-enkephalin (100 or 50 micrograms) significantly (P less than 0.05) delayed the drinking onset, decreased the number of animals drinking, and reduced the volume consumed (100 micrograms, 30 min) in response to ANG II (50 ng). ANG II-stimulated increases in plasma [AVP] and blood pressure were inhibited by 50 or 100 micrograms, respectively, of Leu-enkephalin administered into LV but not 4V. Decreased motor activity occurred after Leu-enkephalin (100 micrograms) administration into LV and 4V, whereas head shakes were more consistent after the former. Fast green dye administered into 4V did not reach anterior periaqueductal, third, or lateral cerebroventricular sites. Thus opioid peptide receptors inhibiting ANG II-stimulated drinking, vasopressin release, and pressor response are postulated to be in brain structures accessible from lateral or third cerebroventricles. Opiate receptors inhibitory to drinking are also reached from peri-4V sites.
In water-deprived rats and mice, animals trained to the test situation spent more time in drinking than naive animals (first exposure to the test situation). The time spent in drinking, either during 5 min or during 10 min was recorded. As compared to controls, benzodiazepines, phenobarbital, meprobamate, and mecloqualone increased drinking time whether the experiments were run on naive or on experienced animals [5 or 10 (in mice) and 9 (in rats) exposures in the test situation]. All drugs were injected i.p. 30 min before testing. This release of the drinking behavior was more pronounced during the last 5 min than during the first 5 min of the 10 min test session. These results suggest that: 1. The inhibition of water intake of naive animals as compared to trained rats and mice, could be related to some emotional factors elicited by the first exposure to an unknown situation. 2. The increase in drinking time induced by the antianxiety drugs in a novel and in a familiar situation seems difficult to correlate only with the antianxiety action of these compounds. 3. Antianxiety drugs could interfere with the regulatory mechanism of thirst.
A family of peptides, known as atrial natriuretic factors (ANF), have been isolated from atrial muscle tissue and reported to have profound effects on water and salt metabolism. ANF have also been reported to be present in the brain. The primary actions of these peptides lead to a reduction in plasma and extracellular fluid volume by eliciting natriuresis and diuresis, and by opposing the action of other peptidergic systems such as the vasopressin and angiotensin systems that promote water retention and enhance drinking behavior. This study was designed to determine if, in addition to its peripheral actions, ANF would also affect water ingestion, a mechanism that would be consistent with its general actions as a factor regulating extracellular fluid volume. Intraventricular (IVT) administration of an ANF, atriopeptin III (APIII), to intact male rats resulted in a significant inhibition of water intake in animals which were conditioned to drink during a one hour period. The inhibitory effects of APIII were immediate and most effective during the first 15 minute period, when maximal drinking occurred. Most remarkably, APIII given IVT also inhibited the potent dipsogenic action of angiotensin II (AII) on both water and a 2% NaCl solution intake. The results strongly suggest that ANF may have a significant role in central regulation of fluid intake and that its antidipsogenic effects may be mediated, at least in part, by an inhibitory effect on the central action of AII.
We report results of a prospective examination of the influence of outcome expectancy variables and inherited temperaments on the onset of drinking over a 12-month period in a sample of 1,164 high school students. While univariate prospective analysis indicated that drinkers and nondrinkers were different both on measures of outcome expectancy and temperament, multivariate analysis supported, most strongly, a social learning account of the processes influencing the onset and maintenance of drinking behavior in this sample. The multivariate analysis revealed that only expectancies for enhanced social behavior were consistently associated with the onset of drinking from baseline to 12-month follow-up (p < .001). Among all nondrinkers at baseline, those entertaining higher expectancies about the positive effects of alcohol on social interaction were more likely to begin drinking between baseline and follow-up. At present, few, if any, alcohol abuse prevention studies with adolescents have explicitly attempted to alter alcohol expectancies or to establish a link between expectancy and behavior change. Our results suggest that it may be useful to do so.
Three intracranial injection parameters, injectate concentration at equivalent doses, rupture or bypass of the lateral ventricle by cannula in reaching the site, and multiple injections per animal, were studied to assess their effects on the drinking behavior elicited by angiotensin II at the lateral preoptic area (LPOA). Half of the animals were implanted with 23 gauge cannulae which penetrated the lateral ventricle en route to the site. The remaining animals received cannulae that were angled laterally to bypass the ventricle. In ventricular animals, the more concentrated injectate increased the total water intake over a 30 min period and affected the pattern of drinking through time. Animals with cannulae that penetrated the ventricle en route to the LPOA drank significantly more than the animals whose cannulae missed the ventricle. In all cases, no significant difference in drinking response was found between the first and second injections received by each rat. These results indicate that standardized intracranial chemical injection methods are needed for comparison of experiments utilizing this technique.
Angiotensin II injected in small doses into the cerebral ventricles produces an increase in blood pressure and drinking behavior. The site of action for both of these effects was studied in 3 main experiments. (1) The response to several doses of angiotensin delivered to each ventricle was investigated with multiple ventricular cannulation. This revealed that the rostral ventricular system was involved in angiotensin II mediated responses. (2) CSF flow was limited by plugging specific anterior and posterior ventricular regions and then testing for angiotensin II induced drinking and pressor responses. This technique showed that the ventral anterior third ventricle must be reached by the peptide in order to produce either blood pressure or drinking effects. (3) In order to separate pressor components due to vasopressin release and sympathetic activation, hypophysectomized rats were also tested. The experiment showed that the pressor response to intraventricular angiotensin II is due to both sympathetic and pituitary hormonal components and both are dependent on sites sensitive to angiotensin in the anterior third ventricule. The ventral anterior third ventricle or periventricular tissue surrounding it seems to be essential for both blood pressure and drinking responses to intraventricular angiotensin II.
Angiotensin (ANG) II is a powerful and phylogenetically widespread stimulus to thirst and sodium appetite. When it is injected directly into sensitive areas of the brain, it causes an immediate increase in water intake followed by a slower increase in NaCl intake. Drinking is vigorous, highly motivated, and rapidly completed. The amounts of water taken within 15 min or so of injection can exceed what the animal would spontaneously drink in the course of its normal activities over 24 h. The increase in NaCl intake is slower in onset, more persistent, and affected by experience. Increases in circulating ANG II have similar effects on drinking, although these may be partly obscured by accompanying rises in blood pressure. The circumventricular organs, median preoptic nucleus, and tissue surrounding the anteroventral third ventricle in the lamina terminalis (AV3V region) provide the neuroanatomic focus for thirst, sodium appetite, and cardiovascular control, making extensive connections with the hypothalamus, limbic system, and brain stem. The AV3V region is well provided with angiotensinergic nerve endings and angiotensin AT1 receptors, the receptor type responsible for acute responses to ANG II, and it responds vigorously to the dipsogenic action of ANG II. The nucleus tractus solitarius and other structures in the brain stem form part of a negative-feedback system for blood volume control, responding to baroreceptor and volume receptor information from the circulation and sending ascending noradrenergic and other projections to the AV3V region. The subfornical organ, organum vasculosum of the lamina terminalis and area postrema contain ANG II-sensitive receptors that allow circulating ANG II to interact with central nervous structures involved in hypovolemic thirst and sodium appetite and blood pressure control. Angiotensin peptides generated inside the blood-brain barrier may act as conventional neurotransmitters or, in view of the many instances of anatomic separation between sites of production and receptors, they may act as paracrine agents at a distance from their point of release. An attractive speculation is that some are responsible for long-term changes in neuronal organization, especially of sodium appetite. Anatomic mismatches between sites of production and receptors are less evident in limbic and brain stem structures responsible for body fluid homeostasis and blood pressure control. Limbic structures are rich in other neuroactive peptides, some of which have powerful effects on drinking, and they and many of the classical nonpeptide neurotransmitters may interact with ANG II to augment or inhibit drinking behavior. Because ANG II immunoreactivity and binding are so widely distributed in the central nervous system, brain ANG II is unlikely to have a role as circumscribed as that of circulating ANG II. Angiotensin peptides generated from brain precursors may also be involved in functions that have little immediate effect on body fluid homeostasis and blood pressure control, such as cell differentiation, regeneration and remodeling, or learning and memory. Analysis of the mechanisms of increased drinking caused by drugs and experimental procedures that activate the renal renin-angiotensin system, and clinical conditions in which renal renin secretion is increased, have provided evidence that endogenously released renal renin can generate enough circulating ANG II to stimulate drinking. But it is also certain that other mechanisms of thirst and sodium appetite still operate when the effects of circulating ANG II are blocked or absent, although it is not known whether this is also true for angiotensin peptides formed in the brain. Whether ANG II should be regarded primarily as a hormone released in hypovolemia helping to defend the blood volume, a neurotransmitter or paracrine agent with a privileged role in the neural pathways for thirst and sodium appetite of all kinds, a neural organizer especially in sodium appetit
Administration of the cannabinoid CB(1) receptor antagonist, SR 141716 [N-piperidino-5-(4-chlorophenyl)-1-(2,4-dichlorophenyl)-4-methyl-3-pyrazole-carboxamide], has been reported to reduce alcohol intake and alcohol self-administration in different models of excessive alcohol consumption, including the selectively bred Sardinian alcohol-preferring (sP) rats. The present study investigated whether SR 141716 was also capable of decreasing, in this rat line, alcohol's motivational properties. Extinction responding for alcohol, defined as the maximal number of lever responses reached in the absence of alcohol in rats trained to lever-press for alcohol, was used as index of alcohol's motivational properties. Rats were initially trained to lever-press for oral alcohol (15%, v/v) under a fixed ratio (FR) schedule of FR4. Once self-administration behavior was established, extinction sessions were conducted. SR 141716 (0, 0.3, 1 and 3 mg/kg; i.p.) was acutely administered before extinction sessions. In order to assess the specificity of SR 141716 action on extinction responding for alcohol, a separate group of sP rats was trained to lever-press for a 3% (w/v) sucrose solution under an FR4 schedule. SR 141716 administration produced a dose-dependent, virtually complete suppression of extinction responding for alcohol. In contrast, extinction responding for sucrose was not significantly altered by treatment with SR 141716. Further to the consummatory aspects, these results also extend the suppressing effect of SR 141716 to the appetitive aspects of alcohol drinking behavior in sP rats. The results also implicate the cannabinoid CB1 receptor in the neural substrate mediating alcohol's motivational properties in this rat line.