SEARCH · PubMed Health

Results for “Extended”

Explore indexed PubMed citations for clinical trials, systematic reviews and public health research. Read source abstracts and follow each citation to its original PubMed record.

Quote a phrase for an exact phrase match. Source license links do not imply unrestricted reuse.

At least 919 records · Page 51Linked to original sources

PubMed1993

Effects of rigid gas permeable contact lens extended wear on rabbit cornea assessed by LDH activity, MDH activity, and albumin levels in tear fluid.

We used noninvasive biochemical techniques to study the effects on rabbit corneas of 7-day extended wear of rigid gas permeable (RGP) contact lenses of varying oxygen transmissibilities. Corneal effects were assessed through measurement of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and malate dehydrogenase (MDH) activities and albumin levels in tears. The RGP contact lenses used had Dk/Ltotal values ranging from 33 to 64 x 10(-9) (cm/sec) (mL O2/mL mmHg) and were of uniform 0.15 mm center thickness. Extended wear of high Dk (Dk/Ltotal = 34) and super high Dk (Dk/Ltotal = 56) lenses caused an increase in tear LDH activity from 1,190 U/L (before lens wear) to over 18,000 U/L during 7 days of continuous wear. These contact lenses also caused gradual increases in tear MDH activity from 431 U/L (before lens wear) to over 750 U/L after 7 days of continuous wear. Extended wear of the ultra high Dk lens (Dk/Ltotal = 64), however, caused no significant increase in LDH or MDH activity in tears. Tear albumin levels in all contact lens wearing eyes increased after 1 day of lens wear, then gradually recovered to normal values after 2 days of continuous wear. The changes in albumin levels did not correlate with Dk/Ltotal values of lenses worn.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Adaptation, Ocular↗

PubMed1996

Changes in corneal radius and thickness in response to extended wear of rigid gas permeable contact lenses.

PURPOSE: In this study we assessed patients' clinical tolerance to extended wear of Hoya Hard EX contact lenses, which have a Dk of 125, and determined resulting changes in corneal radius and thickness. METHODS: Hoya Hard EX rigid gas permeable contact lenses (Dk = 125) were fitted to 57 eyes of 29 patients; all eyes were free of pathology. The average duration of contact lens wear was 5.28 +/- 1.43 days. Changes in the radius and thickness of the cornea were measured after 1,3, and 6 months of lens wear. RESULTS: At 1 month, keratometer readings indicated significant flattening in both the horizontal (P < 0.01) and vertical meridians (P < 0.001). At 3 and 6 months, the flattening of both meridians had become more significant (P < 0.001). Although there were no statistically significant changes in corneal thickness at 1 month, significant decreases in thickness were observed at 3 and 6 months (P < 0.001). During the study, patients' vision was stable and lens wear caused no serious complications. At the end of the study, all 29 patients continued extended wear of their contact lenses. CONCLUSIONS: High-Dk RGP contact lenses are an alternative to soft lenses for extended wear.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1996

Regular replacement of extended wear rigid gas permeable contact lenses.

PURPOSE: While the benefits of planned replacement of soft contact lenses have been investigated, the question of whether there are any clinical benefits to planned replacement of rigid gas permeable (RGP) lenses does not appear to have been addressed experimentally. We aimed to determine the benefits of regular replacement of extended wear RGP contact lenses. METHODS: We conducted a prospective, single-center, controlled, double-masked study of 39 RGP lens wearers. The subjects were divided into two groups and wore extended wear Quantum 2 lenses (Dk = 120) for 12 months. Subjects in Group I replaced lenses every 3 months, whereas those in Group II were not scheduled to replace their lenses. The integrity of the lenses and the ocular responses to lens wear were monitored in both groups every three months. RESULTS: Compared to lenses worn by subjects in Group I, lenses worn by Group II subjects showed significantly more mucous coating, lens binding, and corneal staining over time (P < 0.05; ANCOVA). There was no difference in microcystic or tarsal conjunctiva response, lens comfort, refractive change, or visual acuity between the two groups. CONCLUSIONS: We advocate that to maintain optimal lens integrity and ocular health, RGP lenses used for extended wear should be replaced every 3 to 6 months.

Adult↗

PubMed1997

Prospective trial of daily and extended wear disposable contact lenses.

PURPOSE: The current study prospectively evaluates the response to daily and extended wear of disposable lenses with each patient acting as his/her own control. This paradigm allowed for elimination of individual variation as a confounding factor, as well as determining whether an intrinsic factor, other than lens wear, predisposed patients to complications. METHODS: One hundred thirty-four patients were randomly assigned to contralateral daily wear (DW) or extended wear (EW) with Acuvue lenses for 1 year. All lenses were disposed of on a weekly basis. Bilateral bacteriology of lids, conjunctivae, lenses, and fingers was carried out on those patients presenting with complications. RESULTS: The results after 1 year indicate a higher incidence of complications in the EW eye (peripheral infiltrative keratopathy, 12%; corneal striae, 3%). No significant clinical complications occurred in the DW eye. Microbiological cultures did not reveal any significant difference between those eyes with keratopathy and those of controls. The most common pathogen was Staphyloccocus epidermidis. No gram-negative organisms grew from any of the culture sites. CONCLUSIONS: The results of this study indicate that extended wearing schedules, and not the lens entity, predispose the patient to a higher risk of keratopathy with disposable contact lenses. No microbiological association with the adverse events could be determined, and no intrinsic patient factor could be demonstrated that would predict the likelihood of complications.

Adult↗

PubMedDate not supplied

The extended Abbe flap in the reconstruction of complex midfacial defects.

The Abbe flap is most commonly used to repair full-thickness defects of the lip that do not involve the commissure. This well-perfused axial flap is based on the labial branches of the facial artery. The inferior labial vessels have been shown to support a cutaneous territory, including the entire lower lip, chin, and submental skin. Defects extending beyond the confines of the upper lip may be reconstructed with an extended lip switch flap that is based on the inferior labial artery. This "extended" Abbe flap allows functional and cosmetically acceptable repair of the upper lip, medial cheek, columella, and nasal sill. Case presentations illustrate the technique and outcome.

Aged↗

PubMedDate not supplied

The extended columellar strut-tip graft.

The extended columellar strut-tip graft is a structural unit used in endonasal rhinoplasty that combines the attributes of the columellar strut and the tip graft. It is used to provide projection and contour to the nasal tip. Our goal with this study was to evaluate a 15-year experience with 155 patients who underwent rhinoplasty with the extended columellar strut-tip graft. Of these, 110 underwent secondary rhinoplasty, and 45 underwent primary rhinoplasty. There were 6 patients in the secondary rhinoplasty group who experienced complications: in 3, the graft became visible postoperatively, and 3 patients had graft placement asymmetry. These 6 patients underwent surgery in the initial years of graft development. One patient with graft edge visibility and 1 patient with graft asymmetry underwent revision surgery with satisfactory results. The extended columella strut-tip graft is a reliable method to provide nasal tip projection and contour. The successful use of the graft requires precise diagnosis and surgical technique.

Adult↗

PubMed2003

Reduction of out-of-hospital symptomatic venous thromboembolism by extended thromboprophylaxis with low-molecular-weight heparin following elective hip arthroplasty: a systematic review.

BACKGROUND: Numerous trials and meta-analyses have shown that extended out-of-hospital prophylaxis with low-molecular-weight heparin reduces asymptomatic and symptomatic venous thromboembolism after total hip arthroplasty. We hypothesized that knowledge of the results of screening tests may have resulted in overdiagnosis of symptomatic venous thromboembolism in many of these studies. The purpose of this analysis was to obtain an accurate estimate of the absolute risk reduction (ARR) of symptomatic venous thromboembolism after discharge from hospital in controlled studies that avoided this potential bias for overdiagnosis. METHODS: Articles were identified using MEDLINE, EMBASE, and the Cochrane Library databases (January 1980-April 2002). Studies were eligible if the assessment of symptomatic venous thromboembolism was standardized and performed independently of mandatory objective testing. RESULTS: Two studies (907 patients) were eligible for assessment of symptomatic venous thromboembolism, 5 studies (1917 patients) for symptomatic pulmonary embolism, and 7 studies (2425 patients) for fatal pulmonary embolism. In controls vs extended treatment groups, after hospital discharge, the frequency of symptomatic venous thromboembolism was 2.7% vs 1.1% (ARR, 1.56%; 95% confidence interval [CI], -0.21% to 3.3%; number needed to treat, 64); symptomatic pulmonary embolism was 0.36% vs 0% (ARR, 0.36%; 95% CI, -0.3% to 1.36%; number needed to treat, 278); and fatal pulmonary embolism was 0.09% vs 0% (ARR, 0.09%; 95% CI, -0.08% to 0.27%; number needed to treat, 1093). CONCLUSIONS: The absolute reduction in symptomatic venous thromboembolism attributed to extended prophylaxis in some studies and meta-analyses seems to have been overestimated.

Arthroplasty, Replacement, Hip↗

PubMed1999

Extended endoscopic frontal sinus surgery to interrupted nasofrontal communication caused by scarring of the anterior ethmoid: long-term results.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the long-term results of extended endoscopic frontal sinus surgery, including removal of the floor of the frontal sinus (Draf type II procedure) and the median drainage operation (Draf type III procedure or modified Lothrop procedure), for obstructive frontal sinusitis caused by postoperative scar formation, with the emphasis on the long-term success of the median drainage procedure. DESIGN: Retrospective review of 22 consecutive cases of extended endonasal frontal sinus surgery in patients with obstructive frontal sinusitis caused by postoperative scarring. SETTING: The procedures were performed at a private surgicenter in Japan. PATIENTS: Twenty-two patients (15 males and 7 females) ranging in age from 14 to 61 years. All patients had scar formation in the anterior ethmoid, either with or without middle turbinate lateralization or ethmoiditis. Three patients underwent Draf type II procedure followed by Draf type III procedure because of surgical failure of the type II procedure. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Restoration of communication to the frontal sinus was evaluated by computed tomography. All patients were examined at least 12 months after surgery or stent removal. RESULTS: Of the 16 patients who underwent the type III procedure, in 14 (88%) the patency of the opening to the frontal sinus and an aerated sinus were confirmed. Of 12 sides in 9 patients who underwent Draf type III procedure, 5 sides (42%) were also confirmed as "cured." CONCLUSIONS: The median drainage operation (Draf type III procedure) on the frontal sinus showed excellent long-term results compared with the type II procedure. Extended endoscopic frontal sinus surgery, particularly the median drainage procedure, is useful in the functional treatment of obstructive frontal sinusitis caused by postoperative scarring.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1991

Extended blepharoplasty.

Extended blepharoplasty involves extending the dissection of the skin-muscle flap used in standard lower eyelid blepharoplasty to a level below the infraorbital rim. This technique is useful in the management of infraorbital, or malar, bags that are seen in as many as 10% of blepharoplasty candidates. A concomitant eyelid shortening procedure is frequently needed to treat horizontal eyelid laxity. Achievement of satisfactory results depends on the proper suspension of the skin-muscle flap to the lateral canthal periosteum. Extended blepharoplasty is an innovative way to improve infraorbital pouching, which is otherwise beyond the reach of the standard blepharoplasty procedure.

Adult↗

PubMed1992

Extended access/internal approaches for the management of facial trauma.

The two most significant recent developments in the treatment of facial trauma are the introduction of plating systems, which provide rigid internal fixation and the development of surgical approaches that allow wide exposure of the entire facial skeleton while minimizing external incisions. These approaches (referred to as extended access/internal approaches) are hemicoronal and coronal flaps, the sublabial approach to the midface, the transconjunctival approach to the orbital floor and orbital rim, and the intraoral management of mandibular fractures. These approaches work well, and have become standard techniques for managing facial trauma; however, each one has definite technical points that need to be adhered to to assure their success. Additionally, there are situations where these approaches are not appropriate and, in fact, may even be detrimental. This article outlines our approach to facial trauma using these extended access/internal approaches and discusses the important technical factors of each approach. Our experience in treating 113 patients with 119 fractures and 161 approaches over the last 2 years is presented and the role extended access/internal approaches have played is reviewed. The indications, limitations, and possible complications associated with each approach are outlined.

Facial Bones↗

PubMed2002

Extended hepatectomy in patients with hepatobiliary malignancies with and without preoperative portal vein embolization.

HYPOTHESIS: Preoperative portal vein embolization (PVE) allows potentially curative hepatic resection without additional morbidity or mortality in patients with hepatobiliary malignancies who are marginal candidates for resection based on small liver remnant size. DESIGN: A retrospective review of a consecutive series of patients in a multi-institutional database who underwent extended hepatectomy. SETTING: University-based referral centers. PATIENTS: Forty-two patients underwent preoperative determination of the future liver remnant (FLR) volume before extended hepatectomy (> or = 5 segments) for hepatobiliary malignancy without chronic underlying liver disease. Patients were stratified by treatment with or without preoperative PVE. INTERVENTION: Preoperative percutaneous PVE. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Clinical characteristics, FLR volume, operative morbidity, and survival. RESULTS: There was no difference between the groups that did and did not undergo PVE for the number of tumors, tumor size, estimated blood loss, duration of the operation, complexity of resection, or surgical margins. The FLR at presentation was significantly smaller in patients who underwent PVE than in patients who did not undergo PVE (18% vs 23%; P<.001). After PVE, FLR volumes increased significantly (P =.003); preoperative FLR volumes were similar in both groups (patients who underwent PVE, 25%; and patients who did not undergo PVE, 23%). There was no perioperative mortality and no statistical difference in the incidence of perioperative complications between those who did and those who did not undergo PVE (5 [28%] of 18 patients vs 5 [21%] of 24 patients). The overall 3-year survival was 65% and the median survival duration was equivalent in the 2 groups (40 vs 52 months for those who did vs those who did not undergo PVE). CONCLUSION: Portal vein embolization enables safe and potentially curative extended hepatectomy in a subset of patients who would otherwise be marginal candidates for resection based on a small liver remnant size.

Adult↗

PubMed2003

Extended transmediastinal dissection: an alternative to gastroplasty for short esophagus.

HYPOTHESIS: The significance of short esophagus and its impact on failure after laparoscopic Nissen fundoplication are unknown. Although patients with severe esophageal shortening that requires Collis gastroplasty comprise a small percentage of patients undergoing fundoplication, we hypothesize that patients with moderate esophageal shortening requiring extended mediastinal dissection make up a larger subgroup and that extended laparoscopic mediastinal dissection is a good treatment strategy for such patients. DESIGN AND SETTING: Retrospective comparative analysis in an academic and private practice-based tertiary referral center. PATIENTS: A total of 205 patients underwent laparoscopic Nissen fundoplication for gastroesophageal reflux disease or paraesophageal hernias over 4 years. Outcomes in patients requiring either a type I (<5 cm) or type II (>5 cm) mediastinal dissection were compared. INTERVENTIONS: Laparoscopic Nissen fundoplication with or without extended mediastinal dissection and esophageal physiology testing. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Symptom assessments, operative reports, and outcomes were prospectively recorded on standardized data sheets. Postoperative symptom assessment and esophageal physiology testing were performed. RESULTS: A total of 133 (65%) of the 205 patients underwent type I dissection, and 72 (35%) of the 205 patients underwent type II dissection. Failure occurred in 15 (11%) of 133 patients and 6 (10%) of 72 patients, respectively. The presence of a large hiatal or paraesophageal hernia predicted the need for type II dissection. CONCLUSIONS: No difference was seen in failure rates between patients who required a type II dissection and those who did not. This finding suggests that aggressive application of laparoscopic transmediastinal dissection to obtain adequate esophageal length may reduce fundoplication failure in patients with esophageal shortening and provide a success rate similar to that of patients with normal esophageal length. More liberal application of Collis gastroplasty in these patients is not warranted.

Chi-Square Distribution↗

PubMed2007

Tumor size and operative risks of extended right-sided hepatic resection for hepatocellular carcinoma: implication for preoperative portal vein embolization.

HYPOTHESIS: Major hepatic resection for hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is associated with high operative morbidity and mortality, especially in patients with underlying chronic liver disease. The present study evaluated the factors associated with increased operative risks in patients who underwent extended right-sided hepatic resection for HCC. DESIGN: Retrospective study. SETTING: Tertiary referral center. PATIENTS: A retrospective study was performed on 172 patients who underwent extended right-sided hepatic resection of more than 4 Couinaud segments for HCC during a 16-year period (January 1, 1989, to December 31, 2004) to evaluate the clinical factors associated with operative morbidity and mortality. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Risk factors associated with hospital mortality and major operative morbidity. RESULTS: The overall major morbidity and hospital mortality rates were 14.0% and 8.1%, respectively. On multivariate analysis, small tumor size, conventional-approach hepatectomy, Child-Pugh grade B cirrhosis, and preexisting tumor rupture were the independent factors significantly associated with an increased risk of operative mortality. Discriminant analysis showed that a tumor size smaller than 10 cm significantly increased the risk of operative mortality compared with larger tumors (17.2% vs 3.5%; P = .046). CONCLUSIONS: Anterior approach is the preferred technique for extended right-sided hepatic resection for HCC. Increased risk of operative mortality was identified in patients who had a small tumor, which was associated with the resection of a large volume of functioning liver parenchyma. Preoperative portal vein embolization should be considered in this group of patients to enhance atrophy of the right lobe and hypertrophy of the future liver remnant to minimize the operative risk.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2000

Effective preventive central nervous system therapy with extended triple intrathecal therapy and the modified ALL-BFM 86 chemotherapy program in an enlarged non-high risk group of children and adolescents with non-B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia: the Israel National Study report.

BACKGROUND: Preventive cranial radiotherapy (CRT) in childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL), although effective, may be associated with neurologic sequelae and second malignancies. Attempts to replace CRT with intensified intrathecal therapy (IT) have shown promise in lower risk subgroups. In the Israel National Study (INS) 89 trial, the efficacy of extended triple IT (TIT) alone for cranial prophylaxis in an enlarged non-high risk group (Non-HRG) was assessed in the context of a modified ALL-Berlin-Frankfurt-Munster (BFM) systemic chemotherapy program. METHODS: Non-HRG patients included the standard-risk group (SRG) and the risk group (RG), as defined in ALL-BFM 86. In the INS 89 protocol, all Non-HRG patients were treated with extended TIT x 18 times and systemic therapy based on the BFM 86 protocol, with the addition of etoposide x 4 times. The HRG patients, classified according to BFM 86 criteria, were treated with the BFM 90 HRG protocol including CRT. RESULTS: A total of 250 patients were enrolled. At a median follow-up of 58 months (range, 2-8.5 years), the overall 5-year event free survival (EFS) was 73.5% +/- 3% (standard error ¿SE), and the cumulative central nervous system (CNS) recurrence rate was 4.3% +/- 1.4% (SE) (isolated, 2.3%; combined, 2%). Of the 220 eligible children, 189 (86%) were in the Non-HRG group, and their 5-year EFS was 77.8% +/- 3% (SE). The cumulative CNS recurrence rate for patients without CNS disease at presentation was 3.1% +/- 1% (SE) (isolated, 1.7%; combined, 1.4%). Within the risk subsets defined by the BFM 86 of the Non-HRG, the 5-year EFS rates of the RG (148 patients) and the SRG (41 patients) were 74.8% +/- 4% (SE) and 89.5% +/- 5% (SE), respectively, and the rates of CNS recurrence (isolated and combined) were 4% and 0%, respectively. For the HRG (31 patients), the 5-year EFS and CNS recurrence rates were 47.9% +/- 9% (SE) and 8. 5% +/- 6% (SE), respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Early extended TIT therapy in the context of modified BFM 86 systemic chemotherapy was found to provide adequate CNS protection and systemic leukemia control in patients with non-high risk ALL. However, no benefit for etoposide could be proven in this study.

Antimetabolites, Antineoplastic↗

PubMed1996

Spontaneous de-differentiation correlates with extended lifespan in transformed thyroid epithelial cells: an epigenetic mechanism of tumour progression?

Normal thyroid follicular cells, like many highly differentiated epithelia, have limited proliferative capacity. We previously showed that this could be extended by expression of the SV40 large T oncogene, but that immortal lines always lost thyroid-specific differentiation. Detailed analysis now show that clones expressing T undergo 2 mutually exclusive fates. They either (i) remain well-differentiated, in which case they undergo irreversible growth arrest after 5 to 15 p.d., or (ii) spontaneously develop poorly differentiated sub-clones that exhibit greatly extended proliferative life spans (up to 75 p.d.). The frequency of this event (> 3 per 10(4) cell divisions) greatly exceeds that expected from somatic mutation, suggesting an epigenetic basis. This is supported by our finding of rare de-differentiated epithelial cells in normal thyroid that all generate clones with extended life spans, indistinguishable from the above, following introduction of SV40 T. Escape from early mortality in differentiated thyroid epithelium therefore requires not only loss of tumour suppressor gene function (induced here by SV40 T), but also a switch in differentiation programme, with the latter effectively converting the follicular cell into a cell type with increased intrinsic proliferative potential. The analogy between this in vitro model and the progression of thyroid cancer from the well-differentiated to the highly aggressive, anaplastic form suggests that de-differentiation may play a causal rather than a passive role in this critical switch in tumour behaviour.

Antigens, Viral, Tumor↗

PubMed2000

Conformational behavior of C alpha,alpha-diphenyl glycine: extended conformation in tripeptides containing consecutive D phi G residues.

Recent studies on the conformational preferences of the Dphig (C(alpha,alpha)-diphenylglycine) residue showed that this C(alpha,alpha)-disubstituted glycine has a structural versatility. In fact, depending on the nature of the following or preceding residue, Dphig can assume either folded or extended conformations. We have carried out the analysis of the conformational preferences of the Dphig residue in tripeptides containing consecutive Dphig residues. The crystal structures of Z-Dphig-Dphig -Dphig-OMe (a; Z = benzyloxycarbonyl; OMe = methyl ester), Z-Aib-Dphig-Dphig-OMe (b; Aib = alpha-aminoisobutyric acid), and Z-Ac(3)c-Dphig-Dphig-OMe (c; Ac(3)c = alpha-amino-cyclopropan carboxylic acid), are here reported. The Dphig residues adopt the fully extended conformation in the three tripeptides examined. Together with our previous findings on Dphig containing peptides, the structures of the peptides here examined, indicate that the presence of adjacent Dphig residue in the sequence further stabilizes the extended conformation.

Crystallography, X-Ray↗

PubMed1997

The effects of extending cognitive-behavioral therapy for binge eating disorder among initial treatment nonresponders.

OBJECTIVE: The study was designed with the aim of determining whether extending group cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) would enhance outcome among individuals with binge eating disorder (BED) who failed to stop binge eating after an initial 12-week CBT intervention. METHOD: Forty-six participants who met diagnostic criteria for BED were randomly allocated to either a 12-week group CBT intervention or a waiting list control condition. At the end of 12 weeks, treated participants who met clinical criteria for improvement subsequently received 12 sessions of behavioral weight loss. Remaining participants received 12 additional sessions of CBT for binge eating. RESULTS: Fifty percent of treated participants improved with the initial 12-week course of CBT. There was a strong trend for the extension of CBT to affect improvement in binge eating among initial nonresponders (6 of 14 subjects no longer met diagnostic criteria for BED). Overall, extending CBT led to clinical improvement in 66.7% of all treated participants, with treatment gains occurring through session 20. DISCUSSION: The results suggest that an extended course of CBT (i.e., longer than 12 weeks) will likely maximize the number of potential responders to treatment.

Adult↗

PubMed1998

Logistic regression model for analyzing extended haplotype data.

Recently, there has been increased interest in evaluating extended haplotypes in p53 as risk factors for cancer. An allele-specific polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method, confirmed by restriction analysis, has been used to determine absolute extended haplotypes in diploid genomes. We describe statistical analyses for comparing cases and controls, or comparing different ethnic groups with respect to haplotypes composed of several biallelic loci, especially in the presence of other covariates. Tests based on cross-tabulating all possible genotypes by disease state can have limited power due to the large number of possible genotypes. Tests based simply on cross-tabulating all possible haplotypes by disease state cannot be extended to account for other variables measured on the individual. We propose imposing an assumption of additivity upon the haplotype-based analysis. This yields a logistic regression in which the outcome is case or control, and the predictor variables include the number of copies (0, 1, or 2) of each haplotype, as well as other explanatory variables. In a case-control study, the model can be constructed so that each coefficient gives the log odds ratio for disease for an individual with a single copy of the suspect haplotype and another copy of the most common haplotype, relative to an individual with two copies of the most common haplotype. We illustrate the method with published data on p53 and breast cancer. The method can also be applied to any polymorphic system, whether multiple alleles at a single locus or multiple haplotypes over several loci.

Alleles↗