SEARCH · PubMed Health

Results for “Staphylococcus”

Explore indexed PubMed citations for clinical trials, systematic reviews and public health research. Read source abstracts and follow each citation to its original PubMed record.

Quote a phrase for an exact phrase match. Source license links do not imply unrestricted reuse.

At least 937 records · Page 52Linked to original sources

PubMed2025

Universal versus targeted chlorhexidine and mupirocin decolonisation and clinical and molecular epidemiology of Staphylococcus epidermidis bloodstream infections in patients in intensive care in Scotland, UK: a controlled time-series and longitudinal genotypic study.

BACKGROUND: There are concerns that biocide skin and mucous membrane decolonisation, which is widely used to prevent health-care-associated infections in intensive care units (ICUs), might select for multidrug-resistant pathogens. We aimed to evaluate the effects of de-escalating from universal to targeted skin and nasal decolonisation on Staphylococcus epidermidis bloodstream infections (SE-BSI). METHODS: We did a retrospective, before-after-control-impact time-series analysis and longitudinal genotypic study in two ICUs with divergent decolonisation practice in tertiary care hospitals of adjacent health boards in Scotland, UK. Participants were aged at least 16 years and admitted between July 1, 2009, and Feb 28, 2022. There were no exclusion criteria for the study. In ICU one (intervention site) universal decolonisation in all admissions was de-escalated to targeted decolonisation of meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) carriers on Feb 1, 2019, while in ICU two (control site) targeted decolonisation was applied throughout. We collected bloodstream infection data from all causes, including clinically significant SE-BSI. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing was used to define meticillin-resistant S epidermidis (MRSE) and chlorhexidine susceptibility. We used multilocus sequence typing to identify sequence types from archived SE-BSI isolates. Whole-genome sequencing was applied to a sample from ICU one. The primary outcomes were incidence densities of all bloodstream infections, SE-BSI, and meticillin-resistant S epidermidis bloodstream infections (MRSE-BSI), and the percentage probability that SE-BSI were MRSE-BSI. The effects of de-escalation on primary outcomes were estimated by differences between the intervention and control sites, before and after de-escalation, using a before-after-control-impact time-series design. Secondary outcomes included the proportion of multidrug resistant sequence types, carriage of mobile genetic elements and genes for multidrug resistance and biofilm production. FINDINGS: Between July 1, 2009, and Feb 28, 2022, S epidermidis was identified in 334 (45%) of 735 bloodstream infections in ICU one, of which 197 occurred before the de-escalation intervention in Feb 1, 2019, and S epidermidis was identified in 167 (60%) of 278 bloodstream infections in ICU two. There was no increase in all bloodstream infection incidence coinciding with de-escalation in ICU one, whereas MRSE-BSI incidence declined significantly from 10·4 cases per 1000 occupied bed days (OBDs; 95% credible interval [CrI] 7·2-15·4) to 4·3 cases per 1000 OBDs (2·5-6·7), as did the percentage probability of MRSE (from 89·2%, 95% CrI 77·8-96·5 to 56·7%, 34·3-77·5%). No significant changes in the primary outcomes were seen in ICU two. MRSE-BSI incidence density was positively associated with chlorhexidine use, but not mupirocin use. De-escalation was associated with a reduced proportion of SE-BSI due to multidrug-resistant sequence types and reduced carriage of mobile genetic elements and genes for multidrug resistance and biofilm production, as observed by multi-locus sequence typing and whole genome sequencing. INTERPRETATION: In ICU settings with low MRSA incidence, the benefits of universal decolonisation should be balanced against the risks of selecting MRSE sequence types adapted for invasive and device-associated infection. FUNDING: National Health Service Grampian Charity.

Humans↗

PubMed2006

Isolates of Staphylococcus aureus and saprophyticus resistant to antimicrobials isolated from the Lebanese aquatic environment.

The indiscriminate use of antimicrobials especially in developing countries has evoked serious bacterial resistance and led to the emergence of new and highly resistant strains of bacteria to commonly used antimicrobials. In Lebanon, pollution levels and bacterial infections are increasing at a high rate as a result of inadequate control measures to limit untreated effluent discharges into the sea or freshwater resources. The aim of this study was to isolate and molecularly characterize various Staphylococcus strains isolated from sea water, fresh water, sediments, and crab samples collected from representative communities along the coast of Lebanon. The results on the antimicrobial resistance indicated that the level of resistance of Staphylococcus aureus varied with various antimicrobials tested. The resistance patterns ranged between 45% in freshwater isolates and 54.8% in seawater ones. Fifty one percent of the tested isolates have shown resistance to at least one of the five tested antimicrobials; with seawater isolates exhibiting the highest rates of antimicrobial resistance.

Animals↗

PubMed2005

A real-time PCR assay to detect the Panton Valentine Leukocidin toxin in staphylococci: screening Staphylococcus schleiferi subspecies coagulans strains from companion animals.

Recent reports suggest that methicillin-resistant strains of Staphylococcus schleiferi subspecies coagulans are now commonly isolated from dogs. Given the association of a potentially mobile SCCmec type IV element with lysogenic phage-encoded Panton Valentine Leukocidin (PVL) toxin genes in community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus strains we hypothesized that methicillin-resistant S. schleiferi ssp. coagulans strains may also encode PVL toxin genes. Forty S. schleiferi ssp. coagulans strains isolated from companion animals were studied. Susceptibility to oxacillin was determined by broth microdilution and all isolates were screened by PCR for the presence of the mecA gene. SCCmec typing was performed on 14 isolates. A real-time PCR assay was developed for the detection of the PVL genes using a SmartCycler. Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) was performed to determine whether S. schleiferi ssp. coagulans strains were homogeneous. Twenty-eight of the 40 isolates (70%) were resistant to oxacillin and 26/28 possessed the mecA gene by PCR. SCCmec IV was identified in seven strains; the other seven isolates were not typable by this technique. All 40 strains were negative for the PVL toxin gene. PFGE showed a heterogeneous population and 13 different profiles were determined. In conclusion, this study showed that PVL toxin genes were not detected in a heterogeneous population of methicillin-resistant S. schleiferi ssp. coagulans strains isolated from companion animals.

Animals↗

PubMed1999

Surface display of functional fibronectin-binding domains on Staphylococcus carnosus.

The surface expression in Staphylococcus carnosus of three different fibronectin binding domains (FNBDs), derived from fibronectin binding proteins of Streptococcus dysgalactiae and Staphylococcus aureus, has been investigated. Surface localization of the chimeric proteins containing the FNBDs was demonstrated. All three surface-displayed FNBDs were demonstrated to bind fibronectin in whole-cell enzyme-linked binding assays. Furthermore, for one of the constructs, intranasal immunizations with the recombinant bacteria resulted in improved antibody responses to a model immunogen present within the chimeric surface proteins. The implications of the results for the design of live bacterial vaccine delivery systems are discussed.

Adhesins, Bacterial↗

PubMed2001

[Choice of the NaCl concentration for optimizing the detection of methicillin resistance in Staphylococcus using the gel diffusion method].

The detection of oxacillin resistance is evaluated by the disk diffusion method in a collection of 374 Staphylococcus sp strains. The disk diffusion assay is performed with 5-microgram oxacillin disk and a 10(8) CFU/mL inoculum on Mueller-Hinton agar plates supplemented with 2 or 5% NaCl and incubated at 37 degrees C for 24 h. Strains are considered resistant in accordance to the French recommendations (any growth around the disk is observed). The detection of mecA gene is performed by PCR almost for resistant and discordant strains. Results are concordant for 246 of 256 Staphylococcus aureus strains (182 susceptible and 64 resistant strains) and for 105 of 118 S. epidermidis isolates tested (37 susceptible and 68 resistant strains). Six mecA-negative strains (3 S. aureus and 3 S. epidermidis) give false resistant results on agar with 2 and 5% NaCl. Seventeen isolates are discordant on 5% NaCl: 7 mecA-negative S. aureus strains are susceptible on 2% NaCl agar but resistant at 5% (3% false-positive results), 10 mecA-positive S. epidermidis strains are resistant on 2% NaCl agar but susceptible at 5% NaCl (5% false-negative results). The detection of meticillin resistance is improved on agar supplemented with 2% NaCl.

Agar↗

PubMed2004

Adhesion of Staphylococcus to orthopaedic metals, an in vivo study.

This study describes a new model of biofilm study in rabbits. The primary focus of this study was to assess biofilm adhesion to orthopaedic metals in their first 48 h in a femoral intramedullary implantation model. Two previous inoculation methods i.e. that of pre- and direct inoculation were studied with two bacterial isolates namely Staphylococcus aureus and epidermidis, on titanium and stainless steel metallic implants. A method of sonication and log dilution/plating was used to assess biofilm bacteria adhering to implants. Silver coated metals were then compared with their respective control metals in the new model. The direct inoculation model gave larger and more reproducible biofilm adhesion to implanted metals. Staphylococcus epidermidis shows lower adhesion ability to metals, and biofilms adhere in greater numbers to stainless steel over titanium. Silver coated metals show no statistical difference over control metals when exposed to orthopaedic biofilms.

Animals↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Characterization of thirteen Staphylococcus epidermidis and S. saprophyticus bacteriophages.

Thirteen bacteriophages of coagulase-negative staphylococci belonging to the Siphoviridae family (morphotype B1) were compared by seroneutralization kinetics, protein profiles, G + C content, DNA size and DNA/DNA hybridization. A previous classification into three morphological groups was confirmed. The Staphylococcus epidermidis phage group, although morphologically homogeneous, was heterogeneous by DNA/DNA hybridization (27 to 100% homology) and seroneutralization kinetics. Two new phage "species", STA1139 (STA for Staphylococcus) and STA1154A, corresponding to two morphological types of S. saprophyticus phages, were identified. Species STA1154A was particularly interesting because the size of its capsid, only 46 nm in diameter, and of its DNA, evaluated as 13 kbp, were smaller than those of other staphylococcal phages.

Base Composition↗

PubMed1999

The essential Staphylococcus aureus gene fmhB is involved in the first step of peptidoglycan pentaglycine interpeptide formation.

The factor catalyzing the first step in the synthesis of the characteristic pentaglycine interpeptide in Staphylococcus aureus peptidoglycan was found to be encoded by the essential gene fmhB. We have analyzed murein composition and structure synthesized when fmhB expression is reduced. The endogenous fmhB promoter was substituted with the xylose regulon from Staphylococcus xylosus, which allowed glucose-controlled repression of fmhB transcription. Repression of fmhB reduced growth and triggered a drastic accumulation of uncrosslinked, unmodified muropeptide monomer precursors at the expense of the oligomeric fraction, leading to a substantial decrease in overall peptidoglycan crosslinking. The composition of the predominant muropeptide was confirmed by MS to be N-acetylglucosamine-(beta-1,4)-N-acetylmuramic acid(-L-Ala-D-iGln-L-Lys-D-Ala-D-Ala), proving that FmhB is involved in the attachment of the first glycine to the pentaglycine interpeptide. This interpeptide plays an important role in crosslinking and stability of the S. aureus cell wall, acts as an anchor for cell wall-associated proteins, determinants of pathogenicity, and is essential for the expression of methicillin resistance. Any shortening of the pentaglycine side chain reduces or even abolishes methicillin resistance, as occurred with fmhB repression. Because of its key role FmhB is a potential target for novel antibacterial agents that could control the threat of emerging multiresistant S. aureus.

Carbohydrate Sequence↗

PubMed1962

Studies on the chemistry and immunochemistry of cell walls of Staphylococcus aureus.

The cell walls of an 80/81 strain of Staphylococcus aureus (NYH-6) contain alanine, glycine, glutamic acid, lysine, muramic acid, glucosamine, and ribitol phosphate. 94 per cent of the phosphorus and 41 per cent of the glucosamine are removed by extraction of the cell walls with hot 5 per cent TCA, but significant amounts of the other constituents are not extracted by this procedure. The residue after hot TCA extraction (mucopeptide) is susceptible to lysozyme whereas the intact cell walls are resistant. Staphylococcus aureus cell walls are agglutinated by S. aureus antisera. Agglutination of the cell walls of one S. aureus strain is inhibited by absorption of antisera with cell walls of other S. aureus strains but not by absorption with S. albus cell walls. The ribitol teichoic acid can be isolated from cold TCA extracts of the cell walls. This compound consists almost entirely of ribitol phosphate and glucosamine. The isolated teichoic acid of strain NYH-6 is readily fixed to tanned sheep erythrocytes and these sensitized cells are agglutinated by S. aureus antisera. Cold TCA extracts of cell walls of other strains of S. aureus inhibit hemagglutination whereas extracts of S. albus walls do not. Studies on the inhibition of both hemagglutination and precipitation indicate that the antigenic determinant of S. aureus NYH-6 teichoic acid is beta-N-acetylglucosamine.

Animals↗

PubMed2004

Staphylococcus aureus fibronectin-binding protein (FnBP)-mediated adherence to platelets, and aggregation of platelets induced by FnBPA but not by FnBPB.

BACKGROUND: The ability of Staphylococcus aureus to adhere to platelets and to induce aggregation of platelets is considered to be a critical factor in S. aureus-associated infective endocarditis. METHODS: To identify and characterize further bacterial factors involved in the S. aureus-platelet interaction, we generated a phage-display library of S. aureus genomic DNA by use of the improved phagemid vector pG8SAET. The library was affinity-panned against gel-filtered, immobilized platelets. RESULTS: Repeatedly isolated clones contained overlapping DNA fragments encoding a portion of the S. aureus fibronectin (Fn)-binding proteins (FnBPs). In a flow cytometric adherence assay, Staphylococcus carnosus that heterologously expressed either fnbA or fnbB, which encode FnBPA and FnBPB, respectively, showed increased adherence to activated, gel-filtered platelets. Adherence was promoted by the addition of Fn or fibrinogen (Fg), which most likely act as bridging molecules. Interestingly, promotion of adherence mediated by Fn was in the same range with S. carnosus producing either FnBPA or FnBPB, whereas promotion of adherence mediated by Fg was significantly more pronounced with S. carnosus that produce FnBPA than with S. carnosus that produce FnBPB. Furthermore, FnBPA, but not FnBPB, mediated aggregation of platelets when present on S. carnosus cells. CONCLUSION: Our results indicate a substantial functional difference between FnBPA and FnBPB in the S. aureus-platelet interaction.

Adhesins, Bacterial↗

PubMed2004

Antibody-directed photodynamic therapy of methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus.

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a world-wide public health problem, causing nosocomial and community-acquired infections. Furthermore, MRSA is increasingly resistant to many conventional antimicrobials, so there is a real need to develop alternative approaches for MRSA decolonization and treatment. Previously, we have demonstrated that MRSA can be killed with an immunoglobulin G (IgG)-SnCe6 conjugate and red light, but effectiveness was dependent on the particular strain and the growth phase. In this investigation, we used an antibody raised against MRSA to make an Ab-SnCe6 conjugate capable of targeting many MRSA strains in all growth phases. To suspensions of important epidemic MRSA, each grown to stationary, lag, or exponential phase, the Ab-SnCe6 conjugate was added and samples exposed to red light. Survivors were then enumerated. This treatment was very effective at killing all the different MRSA strains tested, in all growth phases. The Ab-SnCe6 conjugate was able to kill EMRSA-16 selectively in a mixed suspension of EMRSA-16 and Escherichia coli, and was much better at killing EMRSA-16 than a coagulase-negative staphylococcus, S. epidermidis. These results demonstrate that photodynamic therapy of MRSA is very effective when the photosensitizer is targeted to the pathogen using a suitable antibody and may be a good candidate for a novel treatment of MRSA infections.

Humans↗

PubMed1984

Presumptive identification of Staphylococcus saprophyticus from urine specimens by colony appearance and coagulase testing: an evaluation.

Two hundred one urine specimens with pure or nearly pure cultures (greater than 5 X 10(4) CFU/mL) of coagulase-negative staphylococcus were identified in reviewing all significant urine isolates over a ten-month period. The majority of these were from young female adult outpatients with Staphylococcus saprophyticus constituting 88.9% of isolates determined with the API Staph-Ident System. For urine specimens, particularly for outpatients, coagulase-negative, nonhemolytic staphylococcal colonies with yellow pigmentation could be identified presumptively as S. saprophyticus with a sensitivity of 97.8% and a specificity of 98.3%, compared with novobiocin susceptibility testing with a sensitivity of 100% and a specificity of 96.9%.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1992

Novel membrane proteins present in teicoplanin-resistant, vancomycin-sensitive, coagulase-negative Staphylococcus spp.

Clinical isolates of Staphylococcus epidermidis and Staphylococcus haemolyticus resistant to teicoplanin (MIC 64 mg/L) and sensitive to vancomycin (MIC 2 mg/L), were compared with vancomycin- and teicoplanin-sensitive isolates (MICs 1 mg/L) of the same species. No apparent differences between the sensitive and resistant strains of either pair were found with respect to binding of teicoplanin to the bacteria, or to the amino acid content or degree of cross-linkage of purified peptidoglycan. The resistant strains did not inactivate teicoplanin in the surrounding medium. Analysis of the membrane proteins of the resistant S. epidermidis strain grown in the presence or absence of sub-inhibitory levels of teicoplanin (4 mg/L), showed the presence of a 39 kDa protein which was either absent, or present in considerably reduced amounts, in the sensitive strain. Fractionation of cell components after lysis of protoplasts showed that the 39 kDa protein was present predominantly in the membrane fraction but also in small amounts in the wall fraction. Similar investigations with S. haemolyticus revealed the presence of a 35 kDa protein in membranes of the resistant strain: the amount was increased substantially by growth in sub-inhibitory levels of teicoplanin. Membranes prepared by mechanical disintegration of bacteria or by osmotic lysis of protoplasts showed large apparent differences in the amounts of the 39 kDa protein.

Amino Acid Sequence↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Much ado about nothing: methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus.

The pathogenic methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) has received a voluminous amount of notoriety. The four major reasons are its morbidity, mortality rate, cost of treatment, and constant appearance in intensive care units. Both Staphylococcus aureus and S. epidermidis (MRSE) account for 82% of our gram-positive wound isolates, whereas the gram-negative account for 34% of all isolates. Therefore we compared the morbidity, mortality rate, and cost factors related to MRSA-MRSE and gram-negative infections for a 4-year period, assessing more than 214 documented infections. Morbidity and mortality rates were minor for MRSA. Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Escherichia coli accounted for 57.5% of the total gram-negative isolates. Gram-negative antimicrobial therapy usually requires two therapeutic drugs, which increases morbidity and costs, whereas the staphylococci usually can be treated by one antimicrobial. During this period there were 47 gram-negative infections requiring 10 to 15 additional days of hospital stay, with a daily antibiotic cost of $293.40. Costs for MRSA or MRSE are 28% less. Therefore our preoccupation with MRSA or MRSE infections is unwarranted and unsubstantiated.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1990

Neonatal necrotizing enterocolitis associated with delta toxin-producing methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus.

Delta toxin-producing coagulase-negative staphylococci previously have been associated with necrotizing enterocolitis in neonates. We identified three preterm infants (body weight, 845 +/- 59 g) infected with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) who had a similar clinical syndrome, characterized by pustular dermatitis, bacteremia and necrotizing enterocolitis accompanied by gastric residua, abdominal distention, hematochezia and pneumatosis intestinalis. MRSA was recovered from all three infants at infected skin sites, blood or venous catheters and from two of three infants in stool specimens. Two infants also had Staphylococcus epidermidis isolated from stool. All MRSA isolates had identical microbiologic profiles: four plasmids with identical molecular weights; coproduction of enterotoxins A and B; and the same antibiotic susceptibilities. Of one skin isolate, two blood isolates and two stool isolates of MRSA that were tested, all had characteristic delta toxin hemolytic activity. All culture supernatants of these isolates evaluated for delta toxin were positive by Western blot analysis. The two strains of S. epidermidis isolated from stool were negative for delta-like toxin by a standardized enzyme-linked immunoassay. The clustering of these cases, the similarity of the clinical syndrome, and the prior association of necrotizing enterocolitis with delta-like toxins produced by S. epidermidis, suggest that delta toxin-producing MRSA (or other S. aureus isolates) also may be etiologic agents in some cases of necrotizing enterocolitis in newborns.

Bacterial Toxins↗

PubMed1984

Polar lipid and isoprenoid quinone composition in the classification of Staphylococcus.

Representatives of 13 species of Staphylococcus were examined using a small-scale procedure for the sequential extraction of isoprenoid quinones and polar lipids. Menaquinones were the only isoprenoid quinones found in the 77 test strains which were divided into three groups based upon the predominant isoprenologue detected: (i) S. hyicus subsp. hyicus, S. sciuri subsp. lentus and S. sciuri subsp. sciuri contained unsaturated menaquinones with six isoprene units; (ii) S. capitis, S. cohnii, S. epidermidis, S. haemolyticus, S. hominis, S. hyicus subsp. chromogenes, S. intermedius, S. saprophyticus, S. simulans, S. warneri and S. xylosus contained unsaturated menaquinones with seven isoprene units and (iii) S. aureus contained unsaturated menaquinones with eight isoprene units and varying amounts of the corresponding lower isoprenologue. All of the organisms contained very similar polar lipid patterns consisting of diphosphatidylglycerol, phosphatidylglycerol, beta-gentiobiosyl diacylglycerol and a number of glycolipids and phospholipids. One of the glycolipids was chromatographically indistinguishable from beta-gentiotriosyl diacylglycerol. Lysylphosphatidylglycerol was a major component in S. aureus and S. intermedius but was usually present in minor amounts in the coagulase-negative strains. The polar lipid data underline the homogeneity of the genus Staphylococcus and distinguish staphylococci from aerobic, Gram-positive cocci and from the phylogenetically related aerobic, endospore-forming bacteria. Menaquinone composition can also be used to separate staphylococci from other aerobic, Gram-positive cocci.

Chromatography, Thin Layer↗

PubMed2000

The serine-aspartate repeat (Sdr) protein family in Staphylococcus epidermidis.

Staphylococcus epidermidis can express three different cell-surface-associated proteins, designated SdrF, SdrG and SdrH, that contain serine-aspartate dipeptide repeats. Proteins SdrF and SdrG are similar in sequence and structural organization to the Sdr proteins of Staphylococcus aureus and comprise unique 625- and 548-residue A regions at their N termini, respectively, followed by 110-119-residue B-repeat regions and SD-repeat regions. The C termini contain LPXTG motifs and hydrophobic amino acid segments characteristic of surface proteins covalently anchored to peptidoglycan. In contrast, SdrH has a short 60-residue A region at its N terminus followed by a SD-repeat region, a unique 277-residue C region and a C-terminal hydrophobic segment. SdrH lacks a LPXTG motif. Recombinant proteins representing the A regions of SdrF, SdrG and SdrH were expressed and purified from Escherichia coli. Antisera specific to these proteins were raised in rabbits and used to identify Sdr proteins expressed by S. epidermidis. Only SdrF was released from lysostaphin-generated protoplasts of cells grown to late-exponential phase. SdrG and SdrH remained associated with the protoplast fraction and thus appear to be ineffectively sorted along the conventional pathway used for cell-wall-anchored proteins. In Southern hybridization analyses, the sdrG and sdrH genes were present in all 16 strains tested, whilst sdrF was present in 12 strains. Antisera from 16 patients who had recovered from S. epidermidis infections contained antibodies that reacted with recombinant A regions of SdrG and SdrH, suggesting that these proteins can be expressed during infection.

Anti-Bacterial Agents↗

PubMed1984

Cross wall synthesis and the arrangement of the wall polymers in the cell wall of Staphylococcus spp.

The growing process and the fine structure of the cross wall of Staphylococcus were investigated by electron microscopy. Examination of the tangentially sectioned cross wall revealed that it was initially synthesized as a thin cell wall layer by an invaginated cytoplasmic membrane. The wall thickness soon increased by additional synthesis of the wall from the cytoplasmic membrane located at the side region of the cross wall. Scanning electron microscopic observation of sodium dodecyl sulfate-treated and mechanically separated cross walls revealed that the outer surface of the cross wall exhibits regular circular structures and the inner surface showed has an irregular surface. This indicates that cell wall materials were arranged in a regular circular manner in the initially synthesized thin layer. It is conceivable that in Staphylococcus spp. two cell wall synthesizing systems are present: wall-elongation synthesis in which wall materials are arranged in a regular circular manner and wall-thickening synthesis in which wall materials are arranged in an irregular manner.

Cell Wall↗