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PubMed2006

Dispersion of SiO2-based nanocomposites with high performance liquid chromatography.

Core-shell structured Ag/SiO2 nanocomposite has been synthesized by a cyclohexane/Igepal/water reverse micelle system. The spherical nanocomposite particles were washed and concentrated with high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) to remove the surfactant added during synthesis. Spherical SiO2 micrometer-scale particles were packed in the HPLC column as a stationary phase for the washing and dispersing of Ag/SiO2 nanocomposite particles. Surface modification of Ag/SiO2 nanocomposite particles and SiO2 microspheres with silane coupling agent enhanced the surface charge of the particles and improved the efficiency of washing with HPLC. Well-dispersed Ag/SiO2 stable suspensions were successfully attained in ethanol/water mixed solvents after HPLC washing. The state of dispersion for the Ag/SiO2 nanocomposite suspension was systematically assessed using dynamic light scattering (DLS) and transmission electron microscope (TEM) and spin coat/atomic force microscope (AFM) analyses. The mechanism of the enabling HPLC washing protocol for SiO2-based nanoparticles is discussed.

Journal Article↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Encapsulation of aluminium hydroxide fillers with poly-methyl-methacrylate.

A process was developed for the microencapsulation of inorganic filler particles with poly-methyl-methacrylate, to increase the interaction between the hydrophilic filler particles and a polymer matrix. The filler utilised was aluminium hydroxide with an average diameter of 1.9 microm and a specific surface area of 5 m2/g. The process comprised a surface modification, in which a monolayer of isopropoxy titanium isostearate was chemically bound to the surface to render it hydrophobic and to ensure a chemical bond between the filler and the organic phase. Then, an encapsulation reaction was carried out by means of an emulsion-like polymerization process at monomer starved conditions. The modified particles were stabilized in water with sodium-dodecyl-sulphate. A redox system consisting of cumene-hydroperoxide in combination with sodium-formaldehyde-sulphoxylate and iron(II) salt was applied for the initiation of the polymerization. Besides surface polymer, free polymer particles were also formed. The parameters which varied were the filler concentration, the concentration of the initiator components and the surfactant concentration. At optimum conditions, approximately 50% of the added monomer polymerized at the modified filler surface, thus forming encapsulated filler particles. SEM together with TGA analysis indicated that a smooth polymer layer had been formed on the filler surface. At high filler loading, however, coagulation occurred.

Aluminum Hydroxide↗

PubMed2000

Angiogenic mechanisms of endothelialization of cardiovascular implants: a review of recent investigative strategies.

Both cardiovascular implants and therapeutic interventions on native arteries fail due to biologic responses occurring at the blood/prosthesis/arterial wall and tissue/prosthesis/arterial wall interfaces, resulting in the failure modes of thrombosis and myointimal hyperplasia. Systemic pharmacologic approaches including use of anti-coagulant and anti-platelet agents have significant untoward side effects and have not resulted in a dramatic impact on failure modes in many applications, including small diameter vascular grafts. Local delivery of therapeutic agents via surface attachment with defined release kinetics may alter thrombogenicity and/or myointimal hyperplasia. Therapeutic agents may include a spectrum of biologic agents from peptides to endothelial cells. Efficient attachment and release of these agents in biologically active form is dependent upon improved methods of surface modification. The intended action of the biologic agent may similarly be impacted by the surface and bulk characteristics of the underlying biomaterial. It is often assumed, without concrete data. that surface re-endothelialization may have a beneficial impact on both thrombogenicity and myointimal hyperplasia. New clinical data on endothelial cell seeding has been supportive. Spontaneous re-endothelialization may be stimulated via an induced directed angiogenesis resulting in trans-interstitial capillarization and surface endothelialization. Recent advances in therapeutic angiogenesis have suggested the power of angiogenic factors to induce neovascularization of ischemic tissue beds. These concepts have been used to surface modify prosthetic devices with either VEGF or FGF and both in vitro and animal data suggest a potent stimulation of surface re-endothelialization. Neither of these growth factors is likely to be ideal. VEGF is relatively endothelial cell specific but is a relatively weak endothelial cell mitogen. FGF-1 and FGF-2 are more potent mitogens but are less cell specific. Recent work has led to the generation of mutant growth factors via site-induced mutagenesis and results of several such FGF mutants on endothelial cell and smooth muscle cell proliferative response have been studied. The use of 'designer growth factors' on cardiovascular implants and on manipulated native vessels may have a significant positive impact on re-endothelialization and thereby on the failure modes of thrombosis and myointimal hyperplasia.

Animals↗

PubMed1999

Quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) analysis of surfactants influencing attachment of a Mycobacterium sp. to cellulose acetate and aromatic polyamide reverse osmosis membranes.

A series of 23 neutral, anionic, and zwitterionic surfactants were tested at a concentration of 0.1% wt/vol for their influence on attachment of a Mycobacterium sp. to cellulose acetate (CA) and polyamide (PA) reverse osmosis (RO) membranes. Four cell attachment bioassays were used: (1) semiconcurrent addition of surfactant and bacteria to RO coupons (standard assay); (2) surfactant pretreatment of RO membranes (membrane pretreatment assay); (3) surfactant treatment of adsorbed cells (detachment assay); and (4) surfactant pretreatment of mycobacteria (cell pretreatment assay). Seventeen surfactants inhibited attachment to PA membranes, whereas 15 inhibited attachment to CA in standard assays and, in 13 cases, the same surfactant inhibited attachment to both PA and CA. Despite greater cell attachment to PA than CA, surfactants were typically more effective in the former membrane system. More surfactants were effective in impairing cell attachment than in promoting detachment and a number enhanced attachment in membrane pretreatment assays, suggesting surface modification of RO membranes. Cell pretreatment inhibited attachment to CA membranes, suggesting the bacterial surface was also a target for detergent activity. Multivariate regression and cluster analyses indicated that critical micellar concentration (CMC) was positively correlated with Mycobacterium attachment in CA and PA standard assays. Surfactant dipole moment and octanol/water partitioning (LogP) also contributed to detergent activity in the PA system, whereas dipole moment, molecular topology (i.e., connectivity indices), and charge properties influenced activity in the CA system. Influential variables in membrane pretreatment assays included the LogP, topology indices, and charge properties, whereas CMC played a diminished role. Surfactant dipole moment was most influential in CA membrane detachment assays. Increasing system ionic strength by LiBr addition strengthened inhibition of cell attachment to CA membranes by dodecylbenzene sulfonic acid (DBSA) and promoted DBSA adsorption to CA surfaces as indicated by attenuated total reflection Fourier-transform infrared spectrometry. Results indicate that inhibition of bacterial attachment to RO membranes may be maximized by manipulating surfactant molecular structure to optimize surface adsorption behavior.

Bacterial Adhesion↗

PubMed1995

[Effects of Nd:YAG microexplosions on heparin-coated PMMA intraocular lenses].

UNLABELLED: Surface modification of intraocular lenses (IOL) have improved the quality of cataract surgery. Heparin surface-modified (HSM) IOL are implanted for special indications (e.g., recurrent uveitis, cataract surgery for children, preoperative synechia) because of decreased postoperative inflammatory reactions and higher long-term biocompatibility. Nevertheless, secondary cataract, precipitates and fibrinous membranes appear. The YAG laser is used for treatment. METHODS: PMMA intraocular lenses with or without a heparin monolayer were exposed to Nd:YAG laser. The experiment was performed under BSS using different energy levels and distances to the IOL. The heparin monolayer was stained with toluidin blue. Subsequently, the surface of the intraocular lenses was examined with light and scanning electron microscopy. RESULTS: The YAG laser marks of HSM IOL and PMMA IOL showed no morphological differences. Microexplosions and pressure waves of the Nd:YAG laser cleared parts of the heparin monolayer in the area of the laser spots dependent on energy distance to the IOL. Even "breakdown" behind the HSM IOL without any PMMA lesion shown circular destruction of the heparin monolayer. CONCLUSIONS: The heparin surface defect of HSM IOL after YAG laser treatment should be taken into consideration, because a decreased heparin effect in vivo could be possible.

Heparin↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Stimulated endothelial cell adhesion and angiogenesis with laminin-5 modification of expanded polytetrafluoroethylene.

Biomedical implants often exhibit poor clinical performance due to the formation of a periimplant avascular fibrous capsule. Surface modification of synthetic materials has been evaluated to accelerate the formation of functional microcirculation in association with implants. The current study used a flow-mediated protein deposition system to modify expanded polytetrafluoroethylene (ePTFE) with a laminin-5-rich conditioned growth medium and with medium from which laminin-5 had been selectively removed. An in vitro model of endothelial cell adherence determined that laminin-5 modification resulted in significantly increased adhesion of human microvessel endothelial cells to ePTFE. In vivo studies evaluating the periimplant vascular response to laminin-5-treated samples indicated that absorption of laminin-5-rich conditioned medium supported accelerated neovascularization of ePTFE implants. A flow system designed to treat porous implant materials facilitates laminin-5 modification of commercially available ePTFE, resulting in increased endothelial cell adhesion in vitro and increased vascularization in vivo.

Adipose Tissue↗

PubMed2005

Polyurethanes as potential substrates for sub-retinal retinal pigment epithelial cell transplantation.

Transplantation of cultured retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cells under the failing macular is a potential treatment for age related macular degeneration. An important step in the development of this procedure is the identification of a suitable membrane on which to grow and transplant the cells. This paper evaluates the potential of using polyurethanes in this application since they possess several of the required properties, such as, flexibility, robustness, biostability and good biocompatiblilty although their hydrophobicity can limit cell adhesion. Three commercially available polyether urethanes (Pellethane, Tecoflex and Zytar) were evaluated in terms of their wettability using dynamic contact angle analysis and their ability to support a monolayer of functioning RPE cells (ARPE-19) . Furthermore Pellethane and Tecoflex were treated with a simple air plasma treatment and analysed as above. In the "as received condition" only a few RPE cells attached to the Pellethane and Tecoflex and remained clumped. RPE cells grew to confluence on the Zytar substrate by 7 days without further surface modification. Air gas plasma treatment of both Pellethane and Tecoflex increased the wettability of the surfaces and this resulted in the growth of a monolayer of well-spread RPE cells on both materials. Morphologically these cells grew with a normal 'cobblestone' phenotype. These results demonstrate the potential of these polyurethanes for this application.

Cell Line↗

PubMed2004

Contact profilometry and correspondence analysis to correlate surface properties and cell adhesion in vitro of uncoated and coated Ti and Ti6Al4V disks.

A fundamental goal in the field of implantology is the design of specific devices able to induce a controlled and rapid "osseointegration". This result has been achieved by means of surface modifications aimed at optimizing implant-to-bone contact; furthermore, bone cell adhesion on implant surface has been directly improved by the application of biomolecules that stimulate new tissue formation, thus controlling interactions between biological environment and implanted materials. Actually, methods for biochemical factor delivery at the interface between implant surface and biological tissues are under investigation; a reliable technique is represented by the inclusion of biologically active molecules into biocompatible and biodegradable materials used for coating implant surface. This paper focuses the application of three polymeric materials already acknowledged in the clinical practice, i.e. poly-L-lactic acid (PLLA), poly-DL-lactic acid (PDLA), and sodium alginate hydrogel. They have been used to coat Ti (Ti2) and Ti6Al4V (Ti5) disks; their characteristics have been determined and their performances compared, with specific regard to the ability in allowing osteoblast adhesion in vitro. Moreover, profilometry data analysis permitted to identify a specific roughness parameter (peak density) which mainly controls the amount of osteoblast adhesion.

Alginates↗

PubMed2000

Preparation of non-fouling surface through the coating with core-polymerized block copolymer micelles having aldehyde-ended PEG shell.

A new type of surface modification with reactive polymeric micelle was carried out for the creation of non-fouling surface. Amphiphilic poly(ethylene glycol)-b-poly(D,L lactide) (PEG/PLA) copolymers possessing acetal group at PEG-end and methacryloyl group at PLA-end were quantitatively synthesized via an anionic polymerization technique. A micelle of narrow distribution was prepared from the block copolymer. Acetal groups on the micelle surface were quantitatively converted into aldehyde group by an acid treatment. The methacryloyl group located in the core of the micelle was polymerized via radical polymerization to form core-polymerized micelle having reactive aldehyde groups on the surface. The core-polymerized reactive micelle was coated to a primary amino-containing polypropylene (PP) plate that was prepared by a plasma treatment. A reductive amination reaction was employed for a conjugation of the reactive core-polymerized micelle on the surface via a covalent linkage. The coating was evaluated by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, zeta-potential measurement, and the adsorption of bovine serum albumin, and compared with the PEG-coating under the same condition. The ratio of peak from &Cmacr;&z.sbnd;O bond to C&z.sbnd;&Cmacr;&z.sbnd;C bond indicated that the density of PEG on the surface was higher for the micelle coating than the linear PEG-coating. This is also confirmed by the zeta-potential measurement. By coating the amino-PP surface with micelle, the zeta-potential was remarkably decreased while the PEG-coating under the same condition decreased only appreciably, indicating that micelle coating efficiently masked the surface charge. Further, micelle-covered surface exhibited reduction of protein adsorption. The reduction of protein adsorption along with remarkably masked surface charge implies the high applicability of the micelle coatings to biomedical and bioanalytical applications.

Journal Article↗

PubMed2001

Histologic evaluation of the bone integration of TiO(2) blasted and turned titanium microimplants in humans.

Twenty-seven patients received 2 microimplants each during implant surgery. One microimplant was blasted with 25 microm sized particles of TiO(2); the other was left as machined i.e. a turned surface. Before insertion the surface topography was characterized with an optical confocal laser profilometer. The surface roughness was greater than standard implants, and was similar for both surface modifications averaging over all parts of the implant i.e. tops, valley and flanks. The mean surface roughness from flank measurements only replicated previously reported findings: i.e. significantly rougher surfaces on blasted implants. After a mean healing period of 6.3 months in the maxillae and 3.9 months in the mandible, the microimplants and surrounding tissue were removed with a trephine burr. The histomorphometrical evaluation demonstrated significantly higher bone-to-implant contact for the blasted implants, inserted in the maxilla or in the mandible. Significantly more bone was found inside the threaded area for the blasted implants in the mandible, but there was no difference for implants positioned in maxillae.

Aged↗

PubMed2005

Imaging of Titan from the Cassini spacecraft.

Titan, the largest moon of Saturn, is the only satellite in the Solar System with a substantial atmosphere. The atmosphere is poorly understood and obscures the surface, leading to intense speculation about Titan's nature. Here we present observations of Titan from the imaging science experiment onboard the Cassini spacecraft that address some of these issues. The images reveal intricate surface albedo features that suggest aeolian, tectonic and fluvial processes; they also show a few circular features that could be impact structures. These observations imply that substantial surface modification has occurred over Titan's history. We have not directly detected liquids on the surface to date. Convective clouds are found to be common near the south pole, and the motion of mid-latitude clouds consistently indicates eastward winds, from which we infer that the troposphere is rotating faster than the surface. A detached haze at an altitude of 500 km is 150-200 km higher than that observed by Voyager, and more tenuous haze layers are also resolved.

Journal Article↗

PubMed2004

Tethered protein/peptide-surface-modified hydrogels.

We investigated a wet chemistry method to covalently bond polyethylene glycol (PEG)-tethered extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins (laminin and fibronectin) or peptide (fibronectin-adhesion-peptide sequence) onto the surface of a poly(2-hydroxylethyl methacrylate-co-methylacrylic acid) (PHEMA/MAA) hydrogel that could potentially be used as a replacement for corneal tissue in the eye. An essential requirement for the success of such a surface in the biological environment is its ability to support the growth and attachment of corneal epithelial cells; ECM proteins are known to promote cellular attachment and growth. We hypothesized that the use of tethers or long hydrophilic chains would allow the attached ECM protein/peptide molecules to move two-dimensionally in space, thereby increasing their ability to bind with epithelial cell membranes. Additionally, the tethers would prevent the specifically added growth-enhancing factors from being obscured by any non-specific protein binding occurring on the hydrogel surface. In this surface-modification study, carbodiimidazole (CDI) was used to activate the carboxylic groups (-COOH) on the hydrogel surface in anhydrous dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO) before addition of the PEGylated proteins/peptide. The resulting tethered protein/peptide surface-modified hydrogels were analyzed in terms of percent grafting efficiency, biological activity and mechanical properties. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and 125I radioactive labeling demonstrated the successful covalent bonding between the moieties and the hydrogel surface. Radiolabeling and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) studies indicated that the tethered proteins attached to the hydrogel surface at a concentration of approx. 0.1 microg/cm2. ELISA testing further showed that tethered proteins remained biologically active. However, mechanical tensile testing indicated that the mechanical properties of these chemically modified hydrogels were somewhat altered in comparison with the unmodified hydrogel. Future studies will evaluate the cellular response to these surface-modified materials in vitro and in vivo.

Biocompatible Materials↗

PubMed2004

PLGA nanoparticles in drug delivery: the state of the art.

Nanoparticles represent drug delivery systems suitable for most administration routes. Over the years, a variety of natural and synthetic polymers have been explored for the preparation of nanoparticles, of which Poly(lactic acid) (PLA), Poly(glycolic acid) (PGA), and their copolymers (PLGA) have been extensively investigated because of their biocompatibility and biodegradability. Nanoparticles act as potential carries for several classes of drugs such as anticancer agents, antihypertensive agents, immunomodulators, and hormones; and macromolecules such as nucleic acids, proteins, peptides, and antibodies. The options available for preparation have increased with advances in traditional methods, and many novel techniques for preparation of drug-loaded nanoparticles are being developed and refined. The various methods used for preparation of nanoparticles with their advantages and limitations have been discussed. The crux of the problem is the stability of nanoparticles after preparation, which is being addressed by freeze-drying using different classes of lyoprotectants. Nanoparticles can be designed for the site-specific delivery of drugs. The targeting capability of nanoparticles is influenced by particle size, surface charge, surface modification, and hydrophobicity. Finally, the performance of nanoparticles in vivo is influenced by morphological characteristics, surface chemistry, and molecular weight. Careful design of these delivery systems with respect to target and route of administration may solve some of the problems faced by new classes of active molecules.

Chemistry, Pharmaceutical↗

PubMed1990

The enhanced attachment and growth of endothelial cells on anhydrous ammonia gaseous plasma modified surfaces of polystyrene and poly(tetrafluoroethylene).

Anhydrous ammonia gaseous plasma technique was used for the surface modification of polystyrene petri dishes and poly(tetrafluoroethylene) (PTFE) membranes. Amino groups were added onto surfaces by exposing them to ammonia plasma. Plasma modified polymeric surfaces and control polymeric surfaces were seeded with bovine pulmonary artery endothelial cells (EC). It was found that attachment of EC to control polystyrene surface was negligible. On the plasma modified polystyrene surface, there was improved attachment and growth of EC. At 96 hours, plasma modified surfaces yielded an order of 3 magnitudes more cells compared to those on control. Twenty four hours after seeding the cells, the percentage of EC attachment to control PTFE surfaces and modified surfaces were found to be about 36% and 92% respectively.

Ammonia↗

PubMed2005

Modification of ion-exchange membrane used for separation of protons and metallic cations and characterization of the membrane by current-voltage curves.

The ionic transport properties of several cations (H(+), Na(+), and Zn(2+)) across sulfonated ion-exchange membranes modified with an amine were investigated by the measurement of current-voltage curves to determine the effect of the surface modification of the membrane. The membrane was modified by chlorosulfonation and amination with a diamine (N,N-dimethylethylenediamine) and an amine (isoamylamine) to form a sulfonamide bond between amine groups and the surface layer. In the case of the modification with the diamine, the terminal amine was protonated in acidic media or quaternized with methyl iodide. The presence of a positively charged layer on the two sides of the membrane strongly decreased the limiting current flowing across the membrane in the presence of a 1:1 electrolyte such as HCl or HNO(3) due to an increase of the resistance of the membrane. In the case of divalent cations such as Na(+) and Zn(2+), electrostatic repulsion also contributes to the decrease of the limiting current. The presence of divalent anions seems to increase the limiting current somewhat due to their preconcentration within the cationic layer, which facilitates their subsequent transport across the membrane. When only one face of the membrane was modified, the current-voltage measurements showed that the membrane did not behave like a bipolar membrane. For one-side (under forward polarization) and two-side modified membranes, counterions are slightly blocked in the membrane by the cationic layer, which led to a decrease of the membrane conductivity during electrodialysis.

Journal Article↗

PubMed2004

Synthesis and characterization of nitric oxide-releasing sol-gel microarrays.

Diazeniumdiolate-modified sol-gel microarrays capable of releasing low levels of nitric oxide are reported as a viable means for improving the blood compatibility of a surface without fully modifying the underlying substrate. Several parameters are characterized including: (1) NO surface flux as a function of sol-gel composition and microarray geometry; (2) microstructure dimensions and spacing for optimal blood compatibility; and (3) the effect of sol-gel surface modification on analyte accessibility to platinum electrodes. The sol-gel microarrays release biologically relevant levels of NO under physiological conditions for >24 h. In vitro platelet adhesion assays indicate that a NO surface flux of 2.2 pmol cm(-2) s(-1) effectively reduces platelet adhesion to glass substrates modified with sol-gel microstructures separated by 50 microm. The blood compatibility observed for these micropatterned surfaces is comparable to NO-releasing sol-gel films. When the separation between NO-releasing microstructures is reduced to 10 microm, the NO surface flux required to reduce platelet adhesion is lowered to 0.4 pmol cm(-2) s(-1). Finally, the oxygen response of platinum electrodes modified with NO-releasing sol-gel microarrays indicates that selective modification via micropatterning enhances analyte accessibility to the sensor surface.

Biocompatible Materials↗

PubMed2002

CdS nanoparticles modified to chalcogen sites: new supramolecular complexes, butterfly bridging, and related optical effects.

All present approaches to surface modification of nanoparticles (NPs) with organic ligands exploit metal (cadmium) sites as anchor points. To obtain efficient interaction of NP surface with p-orbitals of organic chromophores, we utilize the chalcogen (sulfur) sites on the NP surface. These sites present several advantages stemming from a stronger interaction of their atomic orbitals with both modifier and NP core. The chalcogen modification of CdS was achieved by using a mixed ligand (2,2'-bipyridyl-N,N')(malonato-O,O')-copper(II) monohydrate complex. The weak monodentate ligands (water) are replaced by a copper-sulfur bond during the modification reaction. The structure of the product was investigated by optical spectroscopy, electron spin resonance, and nuclear magnetic resonance. The modified NP can be described as a few tens (<40) of (2,2'-bipyridyl-N,N')(malonato-O,O')-copper units attached to the CdS core. Steady-state and time-resolved luminescence measurements, molecular orbital calculations, and UPS data indicate that delocalized surface states enveloping the surface chalcogen atoms of NP, transition metal, and p-orbitals of the bipyridine ligand are present in the synthesized species. The delocalized states are made possible due to the bridging of p-levels of sulfur and pi-orbitals of bipyridine by butterfly d-orbitals of the transition metal atom placed between them. Chalcogen-modified NP can be considered as a new member of the family of supramolecular compounds based on transition metal complexes. Both NP and metal complex parts of the prepared supramolecules are very versatile structural units, and new molecular constructs of similar design, in which quantum effects of NPs are combined with optical properties of transition metal complexes, can be obtained with different NPs and metal complexes.

Journal Article↗

PubMed2005

Protein-detecting microarrays: current accomplishments and requirements.

The sequencing of the human genome has been successfully completed and offers the chance of obtaining a large amount of valuable information for understanding complex cellular events simply and rapidly in a single experiment. Interestingly, in addressing these proteomic studies, the importance of protein-detecting microarray technology is increasing. In the coming few years, microarray technology will become a significantly promising and indispensable research/diagnostic tool from just a speculative technology. It is clear that the protein-detecting microarray is supported by three independent but strongly related technologies (surface chemistry, detection methods, and capture agents). Firstly, a variety of surface-modification methodologies are now widely available and offer site-specific immobilization of capture agents onto surfaces in such a way as to keep the native conformation and activity. Secondly, sensitive and parallel detection apparatuses are being developed to provide highly engineered microarray platforms for simultaneous data acquisition. Lastly, in the development of capture agents, antibodies are now probably the most prominent capture agents for analyzing protein abundances. Alternative scaffolds, such as phage-displayed antibody and protein fragments, which provide the advantage of increasing diversity of proteinic capture agents, however, are under development. An approach involving recombinant proteins fused with affinity tag(s) and coupled with a highly engineered surface chemistry will provide simple production protocols and specific orientations of capture agents on the microarray formats. Peptides and other small molecules can be employed in screening highly potent ligands as well as in measuring enzymatic activities. Protein-detecting microarrays supported by the three key technologies should contribute in accelerating diagnostic/biological research and drug discovery.

Animals↗