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PubMed2000

Age-sensitive cognitive function, growth hormone and insulin-like growth factor 1 plasma levels in healthy older men.

Circulating levels of growth hormone (GH) change during the process of aging. Decline of cognitive functioning with aging is also well established. In this study, we investigated whether insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) and the GH response to a challenge of GH-releasing hormone and GH-releasing peptide 6 were associated with age-sensitive cognitive functions, but not with functions that do not decline with aging, in 17 healthy male subjects aged between 66 and 76 years. In addition, relations with anthropometric measures were examined. Neuropsychological performance was scored on tests of variables not sensitive to aging (general knowledge, vocabulary, basic visual perception and reading ability), and of variables sensitive to aging (visuoconstructive ability, perceptual motor and mental processing speed, and verbal long-term memory). After correcting for education, the serum GH response was significantly associated with two age-sensitive cognitive tests (measures of mental processing speed), but with none of the tests not sensitive to aging. However, the direction of the association was opposite to the relation between IGF-1 and these cognitive tests: higher levels of GH response were associated with poorer cognitive performance, whereas higher levels of IGF-1 were associated with better performance. GH response, but not IGF-1, was inversely correlated with body mass index. The results are in accordance with previous research suggesting a disruption of the relation between IGF-1 and GH secretion in older age.

Aged↗

PubMed1994

[Effects of CDP-choline on dynamic changes in LCBF and cognitive function in demented subjects--an H2 15O-PET study].

We studied correlations of serial changes in local cerebral blood flow (LCBF) after single intravenous (i.v.) injection of cytidine diphosphate choline (CDP-choline) to changes in cognitive function in demented subjects after its daily administration for one week. The study group consisted of 7 patients with dementia of vascular origin (VD group; mean age 65.0 years) and 3 patients with dementia of non-vascular origin (non-VD group; 64.7 years). Cognitive function was evaluated with the Japanese version of the Cross Cultural Cognitive Examination (CCCE). After i.v. injection of CDP-choline, mean supratentorial LCBF increased with the maximum value at 40 minutes post-injection in the VD-group, but decreased in the non-VD group (Type, n.s.; Time, n.s.; Type x Time, p < 0.01; ANOVA). The number of the pass-tasks in CCCE increased significantly after the 7 days-injection of CDP-choline only in the VD group (p < 0.05), while it was fairly stable in 15 control patients, who were matched in age and severity of dementia to the study patients. In this group, a change in the number of pass-tasks was significantly correlated with those in LCBF at ROIs in the left and right temporal cortices and the right thalamus. In the non-VD group, there were no significant changes of mean supratentorial LCBF and of the number of pass-tasks in CCCE. These results may be attributable to difference in availability of the acetylcholine neurotransmitter system in the brain between VD- and non-VD patients.

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PubMed2002

Changes in cognitive functioning from 75 to 80 years of age: a 5-year follow-up in two Nordic localities.

The purpose of the study was to analyze changes and stability in cognitive functions among older persons aged from 75 to 80 years, as well as differences in this development between two Nordic localities. The number of subjects taking part in the follow-up phase was 188 in Jyväskylä, Finland, and 184 in Göteborg, Sweden. Cognitive functions were assessed using conventional memory tests (Digit Span Forward and Backward for assessing primary working memory; Visual Reproduction for visual memory) and intelligence tests (Digit Symbol for assessing psychomotor speed; Word Fluency for verbal ability; Raven's Matrices for non-verbal reasoning). With few exceptions, the mean test scores declined significantly among the retested men and women in both localities. Analyses showed that generally over half of the subjects maintained their level of performance over the 5-year period, while a part of the deteriorating minority had a steep decline. There were significant differences in the test performance between the localities both at the baseline and follow-up assessments, but few differences between women and men. On the whole, however, the groups of older women and men from the two Nordic localities had a similar pattern of cognitive development from 75 to 80 years of age.

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PubMed2002

Relationships among brain metabolites, cognitive function, and viral loads in antiretroviral-naïve HIV patients.

This study aims to determine the relationship among cerebral metabolite concentrations (on proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy or (1)H MRS), cognitive function, and clinical variables (CD4, plasma and CSF viral loads, and lipids) in antiretroviral medication-nai;ve HIV patients. We hypothesized that the probable glial markers myo-inositol [MI] and choline compounds [CHO] would correlate with cognitive function, CD4 count, and viral loads, but not with serum lipids. Forty-five antiretroviral-drug-nai;ve HIV patients and 25 control subjects were evaluated. Frontal lobe [MI], [CHO], and total creatine [CR] were elevated, while basal ganglia [CR] were decreased, with increasing dementia severity. As a group, HIV patients showed slowing on fine motor (Grooved Pegboard) and psychomotor function (Trails A & B), and deficits on executive function (Stroop tasks). Lower CD4 counts and elevated plasma viral loads were associated with elevated frontal white matter [MI], which in turn correlated with the Stroop tasks. These findings suggest that systemic factors (resulting from suppressed immune function and higher plasma viral load) may lead to glial proliferation (elevated [MI], [CHO], and [CR]) in the frontal white matter, which in turn may contribute to deficits on executive function in HIV. Studying antiretroviral-nai;ve patients minimized the confounding effects of antiretroviral treatment on the clinical, MRS, and neuropsychological variables, and allowed for a more accurate assessment of the relationships among these measurements. Metabolite concentrations, rather than metabolite ratios, should be measured since [CR], a commonly used reference for metabolite ratios, varies with disease severity in both frontal lobe and basal ganglia.

AIDS Dementia Complex↗

PubMed2005

[Gender differences in cognitive functions].

Gender differences in neuropsychological functioning of patients with psychiatric disorders have been studied extensively in the last years. The available studies provide conflicting results, which can be attributed to the complexity of variables influencing cognitive sex differences. In this article we review the literature about gender differences in cognitive functions in healthy men and women and discuss the relevance of hormones, socio-cultural factors, educational factors and training on the occurrence of these sex differences. Furthermore we summarize the results from functional MRI experiments, which is a useful tool for noninvasively localizing areas in the brain involved in specific cognitive functions.

Brain↗

PubMed2005

[The effect of lavender aromatherapy on cognitive function, emotion, and aggressive behavior of elderly with dementia].

PURPOSE: This study was to develop an aromatherapy hand massage program, and to evaluate the effects of lavender aromatherapy on cognitive function, emotion, and aggressive behavior of elderly with dementia of the Alzheimer's type. METHOD: The Research design was a nonequivalent control group non-synchronized quasiexperimental study. Lavender aromatherapy was administrated to experimental group I for 2 weeks, jojoba oil massage was administrated to experimental group II for 2 weeks, and no treatment was administrated to the control group for 2 weeks. Data was analyzed using the chi(2)-test, ANOVA, repeated measures of ANCOVA and ANCOVA in the SPSS program package. RESULT: 1. Experimental group I did not show significant differences in cognitive function in relation to the experimental group II and control group. 2. Experimental group I showed significant differences in emotion and aggressive behavior in relation to the experimental group II and control group. CONCLUSION: A Lavender aromatherapy hand massage program is effective on emotions and aggressive behavior of elderly with dementia of the Alzheimer's type.

Aged↗

PubMed2002

The relationship between temporal changes in blood pressure and changes in cognitive function: atherosclerosis risk in communities (ARIC) study.

BACKGROUND: Although previous epidemiological studies have reported that hypertension is a major risk factor for decline in brain perfusion and atrophy, which are known to be related to cognitive decline, the impact of temporal changes in blood pressure on age-related cognitive declines has not been assessed. METHODS: The present study evaluates changes in blood pressure and cognitive decline over a 6-year period in the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) Study. This report is based on 8,058 men and women aged 48-67 years examined in the second (1990-92), and fourth (1996-98) ARIC cohort visits. Changes between these visits were measured in hypertension status and three cognitive function tests: Delayed Word Recall (DWR), the Digit Symbol Subtest of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised (DSS/WAIS-R), and the Word Fluency (WF). Adjusted mean differences in cognitive function were compared among five categories of hypertension status by using linear regression modeling. RESULTS: In the present study, older subjects with uncontrolled hypertension had a significantly larger mean DSS/WAIS-R score decline than normotensive subjects. Although other cognitive declines did not achieve statistical significance, both cross-sectional and change analysis suggested that partially controlled or uncontrolled hypertension is associated with a less favorable cognitive profile, particularly when considering results of the DSS and the WF tests. CONCLUSIONS: The present study results provide some support to the hypothesis that hypertension status changes over 6 years in individuals initially aged 48-67 years are related to cognitive changes.

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PubMed2002

Enhancing cognitive function across the life span.

Glucose administration regulates many neural and behavioral processes in rodents, including learning and memory. Given the important role of glucose in brain function and the safety of glucose as a treatment, we have investigated the effects of glucose administration in humans of different ages. In previous work, we examined the effects of early-morning glucose consumption on cognitive functions in elderly individuals. In this population, glucose enhanced performance on specific measures, particularly on those tasks where mild age-related deficits appear (e.g., verbal declarative memory). Interestingly, glucose failed to enhance cognitive functions in young adults. Our recent work has examined three issues related to glucose enhancement of cognition: First, is glucose effective only in reversing impairments or can it also facilitate performance in highly functioning individuals? Second, are glucose effects dependent either on time of day or on interactions with other meals? Third, are typical breakfast foods as effective as glucose in enhancing cognitive performance? Our findings suggest that glucose can improve memory in highly functioning populations as it does in populations with deficits. However, enhancement by glucose may require sufficient levels of task difficulty and of blood glucose. In addition, like glucose, early morning consumption of cereal can improve performance on some cognitive tests. These results have important implications for the nature of glucose facilitation of memory and for the role of dietary factors in performance of many daily activities.

Aging↗

PubMed2003

Effect of a 902 MHz electromagnetic field emitted by mobile phones on human cognitive function: A replication study.

Our study was a replication and extension with methodological improvements to a previous study on effects of the electromagnetic field (EMF) emitted by a 902 MHz mobile phone on human cognitive functioning. Improvements on the previous study included multicentre testing and a double blind design. A total of 64 subjects (32 men and 32 women) in two independent laboratories performed a battery of 9 cognitive tasks twice: while the EMF was on and while it was off. Reaction times (RTs) and accuracy were recorded. The order of exposure and tasks was counterbalanced across subjects and gender. There were no statistically significant differences in performance between genders or laboratories. Although the RTs and the accuracy of answers were very similar to those of our previous study, our previous results were not replicated. We concluded that EMF had no effect on RTs or on the accuracy of the subjects' answers. Further, our results indicate that our EMF had no immediate effect on human cognitive functioning or that such effects are so small that they are observed on behavior only occasionally.

Adult↗

PubMed1994

The relationship between psychosocial and cognitive functioning in schizophrenic patients and expressed emotion and communication deviance in their parents.

The relationship between the family variables of expressed emotion (EE) and communication deviance (CD) and patient attributes of cognitive functions and clinical symptoms were examined. Eleven schizophrenic patients and their parents were evaluated at the beginning and the end of a 2-year treatment programme. The test battery for the patients included the Global Assessment Scale (GAS), Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale and a cognitive test battery. Parents' CD was evaluated with the Communication Conflict Situation and their EE level with Camberwell Family Interview. A significant correlation between patients' GAS score and mother's criticism score was found. The cognitive variable of backward masking was the measure that most consistently showed a close relationship to parent's EE level. The masking measure also differentiated significantly between parents who improved and parents who did not improve on EE during the 2-year treatment period. An empirical basis for a link between patients' cognitive functioning and parents' style of communication was not found.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1986

Cognitive function in recent-onset demyelinating diseases.

To determine cognitive disturbances in recent demyelinating disease, we studied 21 patients with definite or probable multiple sclerosis (MS) of less than two years' duration and nine patients with recently isolated optic neuritis. None had any clinical or social evidence of cognitive impairment. Mild to moderate cognitive impairment. Mild to moderate cognitive impairment was present in 18 (60%) of 30 cases, affecting visual and/or verbal efficiency. These abnormalities were statistically significant when compared with the results of a control group of 29 patients. There was no correlation with a depressive status, between the presence of cognitive impairment and either the degree of handicap or the activity of the disease. The frequency of cognitive dysfunction (60%) appears to be comparable to that reported in other series in which MS evolution is over ten years. The natural history of cognitive functions in MS has to be identified. Neuropsychologic tests could be useful in the diagnosis of monosymptomatic or paucisymptomatic forms of MS (ie, visual or medullary).

Adult↗

PubMed1997

A prospective study of cognitive function in the elderly.

BACKGROUND: We report on the change in cognitive function in a population sample of elderly people who have been examined on two occasions more than 3 years apart. METHODS: A sample of 1135 persons aged 70-102 years was interviewed at base-line then re-interviewed 3.6 years later with the Canberra Interview for the Elderly, which included tests of episodic memory and cognitive speed as well as the Mini-Mental State Examination and the National Adult Reading Test (NART). RESULTS: Mortality and loss to follow-up reduced the sample to 736, of whom 614 completed at least one test of cognitive performance on both occasions. Cognitive performance decreased with age, except on the NART. Decline over the follow-up period increased as a function of age in all cognitive measures, except the NART. Change in cognitive scores was close to normal distribution. Incident dementia was associated strongly with age and current level of cognitive performance, but not with rate of decline. Cognitive decline and the risk of incident dementia did not differ by gender. CONCLUSIONS: A score indicating possible impairment in the very elderly carries a worse prognosis than for the younger elderly. Decline is almost universal in at least one cognitive area among those over the age of 85.

Aged↗

PubMed1985

A Prospective Follow-Up Study of Cognitive Functions After Electroconvulsive Therapy.

The authors studied primarily nonmemory cognitive functioning in a sample of 13 melancholic patients tested prior to electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) and at various intervals during a 1-2 year post-ECT follow-up period. Compared with 13 age-matched normal controls, the patients performed significantly worse at baseline and immediately after the sixth ECT, but were not significantly different at the 30-day, 6-month, and 1-2 year assessments. At 1-2 years post-ECT, cognitive impairment among patients was substantially and significantly less than observed pre-ECT.

Journal Article↗

PubMed2005

The age-dependent relation of blood pressure to cognitive function and dementia.

The relation of blood pressure with cognitive function and dementia has, in recent years, received much attention from epidemiological research. Some cross-sectional studies have shown an inverse association between blood pressure and the prevalence of dementia and Alzheimer's disease, whereas longitudinal studies yield mixed results that largely depend on the age at which blood pressure is measured and the time interval between blood pressure and outcome assessments. Some studies suggest that midlife high blood pressure is a risk factor for late-life cognitive impairment and dementia, and that low diastolic pressure and very high systolic pressure in older adults may be associated with subsequent development of dementia and Alzheimer's disease. Observational studies and randomised clinical trials provide limited evidence for a protective effect of antihypertensive therapy against dementia and stroke-related cognitive decline. Atherosclerosis resulting from long-standing hypertension, and cerebral hypoperfusion secondary to severe atherosclerosis and to low blood pressure may be major biological pathways linking both high blood pressure in midlife and low blood pressure in late-life to cognitive decline and dementia.

Aged↗

PubMed2003

The effect of melperone, an atypical antipsychotic drug, on cognitive function in schizophrenia.

Melperone, a butyrophenone, has been shown to possess atypical antipsychotic properties, i.e. ability to produce an antipsychotic effect in man at doses that cause minimal extrapyramidal side effects. In addition, melperone shares the following with other atypical antipsychotic drugs: (1) effectiveness for ameliorating negative symptoms; (2) no prolactin elevation; and (3) effectiveness in the treatment of some patients with neuroleptic-resistant schizophrenia. Other atypical antipsychotic drugs have been reported to improve cognitive function. This study was performed to investigate the effect of melperone on cognitive function. Nineteen patients with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder, including 11 neuroleptic-resistant patients, were treated with melperone for 6 weeks. A comprehensive neurocognitive test battery and psychopathological ratings (Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale, BPRS) were administered at baseline and after 6 weeks of melperone treatment. Treatment with melperone was associated with improvement in executive function, as measured by the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST)-Categories and WCST-Percent Perseveration. On the other hand, visuospatial manipulation, as measured by the Wechsler Intelligent Scale for Children-Revised (WISC-R) Maze, worsened during melperone treatment. There were no significant changes in other domains of cognition, i.e. verbal learning and memory, verbal working memory, verbal fluency and sustained attention. Scores of WCST-Categories and Perseveration at 6 weeks were predicted from the relevant cognitive test scores at baseline and the change in BPRS Total and Positive scores. These results suggest the usefulness of melperone for facilitating work and social function in patients with schizophrenia. The differences in the cognition-enhancing abilities between melperone and clozapine are discussed.

Analysis of Variance↗

PubMed1999

Activating effects of cross-sex hormones on cognitive functioning: a study of short-term and long-term hormone effects in transsexuals.

In an earlier study we demonstrated that 3 months of cross-sex hormone treatment clearly influenced cognitive functioning in transsexuals. The aims of the present study were to examine: (a) whether we could replicate these findings in a new group of transsexuals; (b) whether a similar pattern of change could be found for novel tasks, i.e. tasks, not used in the previous study, that measured closely related cognitive abilities; (c) whether the cognitive changes following cross-sex hormone treatment had stabilized after 3 months or continued to develop over a period of 1 year; and finally, (d) whether the effects were quickly reversible when the hormone treatment was temporarily stopped. Again a pronounced effect of androgen treatment was found on spatial ability in female-to-male transsexuals (FMs) over a period of one and a half years. As expected, untreated male-to-female transsexuals (MFs) had higher scores on visuo-spatial tasks than untreated FMs; after 3 months of cross-sex hormone treatment, the group difference had disappeared, while after about 10 months of hormone treatment, the sex difference was reversed. These effects did not disappear after termination of cross-sex hormone therapy for a period of 5 weeks, but continued to change slightly in the same direction. Earlier findings of an opposite effect of cross-sex hormones on verbal fluency (i.e. MFs improved and FMs deteriorated after 3 months of cross-sex hormone treatment) were not replicated in this study, nor did we find an hormonal influence on other cognitive functions. This study shows that testosterone had an enhancing, and not quickly reversible effect, on spatial ability performance, but no deteriorating effect on verbal fluency in adult women (FMs). In contrast, anti-androgen treatment in combination with estrogen therapy had no declining effect on spatial ability, nor an enhancing effect on verbal fluency in adult men (MFs).

Adolescent↗

PubMed1996

Significance of cognitive function in the elicitation of sympathetic skin response in healthy humans.

The sympathetic skin response (SSR) is used as an index of sudomotor sympathetic function. However, the central processing of this response is not fully understood. To clarify this point, we assessed the relevance of cognitive function in the elicitation of SSR in 14 healthy subjects by recording simultaneously the somatosensory event-related potential (ERP) and SSR evoked by electric stimuli. The ERP paradigm consisted of three types of stimuli, task-relevant target, task-irrelevant electric shock which is equivalent to the common stimulus for eliciting SSR, and task-irrelevant standard stimuli. ERPs were recorded at Fz, Cz, and Pz on the scalp, SSRs were recorded in both palms and soles of the subject after each stimulus in the ERP paradigm. Target stimuli generated a P300 (P3b) and elicited a variety of SSRs from subject to subject. Electric shock stimuli generated a novelty P300 with a shorter peak latency and a higher amplitude than the P3b, with stable elicitation of SSR in the four limbs of all subjects. P300 amplitude showed a significant positive correlation with SSR amplitude with electric shock stimuli. This correlation predominated in the frontal region (Fz), as compared with the parietal region (Pz). A negative correlation between P300 latency and SSR amplitude with electric shock stimuli was also observed. These findings indicate that the elicitation of SSR is influenced by the generation of novelty P300, that is, cognitive function. The frontal region may play a key role in the elicitation of SSR. We believe that the assessment of novelty P300 is required for a precise interpretation of the SSR.

Adult↗

PubMed1994

The effect of intravenous ranitidine and metoclopramide on behavior, cognitive function, and affect.

Both ranitidine and metoclopramide produce neuropsychiatric side effects. Concomitant use of these drugs preoperatively may produce adverse behavioral and emotional changes. Therefore, in 123 unpremedicated patients undergoing tubal occlusion, behavior, cognitive function, and affect were studied before and after a 2-min intravenous injection of placebo (n = 30), ranitidine 50 mg (n = 32), metoclopramide 10 mg (n = 30), or both ranitidine 50 mg and metoclopramide 10 mg (n = 31). Cognitive function was evaluated by the responses to 11 statements devised to assess attitude toward anesthesia and surgery. Affect was assessed by the word chosen out of 11 word-pairs as best describing the feelings at the time. After ranitidine injection, one patient seemed restless and five seemed drowsy. The changes were associated with subjective feelings of agitation (P < 0.05) and restlessness (P < 0.05). After metoclopramide injection, 6 (20%) developed akathisia, 13 (43.3%) seemed restless, and 8 (26.7%) seemed drowsy. The changes were associated with subjective sensation of jumpiness (P < 0.01) and discomfort (P < 0.05). When both ranitidine and metoclopramide were injected, 10 (32.3%) developed akathisia, 4 (12.4%) seemed restless, and 11 (35.5%) seemed drowsy. The changes were associated with subjective feelings of agitation (P < 0.05), jumpiness (P < 0.05), restlessness (P < 0.01), and upset (P < 0.05). Akathisia, a side effect of metoclopramide, seemed to be more prominent when ranitidine was added.

Adult↗