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PubMed2006

Passive immunization of lactating mice with stanniocalcin-1 antiserum reduces mammary gland development, milk fat content, and postnatal pup growth.

During pregnancy and lactation in rodents, stanniocalcin-1 (STC-1) production by the ovaries is upregulated markedly and released into the circulation. The mammary glands are one target of this systemically delivered hormone. The purpose of this study was to lower serum levels of STC-1 in lactating mice through passive immunization so as to monitor the effects on mammary gland function and postnatal pup growth. Passive immunization significantly reduced circulating hormone levels, and pup growth was significantly compromised (30%), even though control and experimental litters had ingested equal amounts of milk. When mammary glands were analyzed, the alveolar area was significantly reduced in antibody-treated mothers. An analysis of milk composition revealed no changes in lactose, protein, or electrolyte levels but an approximately 40% reduction in triglyceride levels. The latter was due to a significant reduction in mammary gland lipoprotein lipase activity and led to a significant buildup of triglycerides in the serum. Body fat content was also significantly reduced in pups from antibody-treated mothers, whereas pup fecal fat content was increased. In mothers, passive immunization also caused significant behavioral effects, in particular, increased locomotor and hindleg rearing activities. Collectively, the results suggest that systemically derived STC-1 has important effects on mammary gland development and the transfer of serum-based triglycerides into milk. Locomotor effects suggest that STC-1 also has a role in maternal behavior.

Adipose Tissue↗

PubMed1993

Maternal youth or family background? On the health disadvantages of infants with teenage mothers.

The health disadvantages of infants with teenage mothers are well documented. Because poor and minority women are disproportionately represented among teen mothers, differences in infant health by maternal age may reflect family background (pre-childbearing) characteristics rather than the effects of maternal age. To control for differences in family background, the authors compared birth outcomes and maternal behaviors that could affect fetal or infant health among sisters in the US National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (1979-1988). They compared sisters who had first births at different ages in order to study the relation between maternal age and low birth weight, prenatal care, smoking and alcohol use during pregnancy, breast feeding, and well-child visits. The authors found evidence that maternal family background accounts for many of the health-related disadvantages of the firstborn infants of teenage mothers. The findings suggest that disadvantaged black primiparous women in their twenties may be an important and possibly underemphasized target population for interventions designed to reduce excess black low birth weight and infant mortality rates.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1988

Experience with younger siblings facilitates maternal responsiveness in pubertal Norway rats.

The latency of maternal behavior (MB) onset induced by cohabitation with pups (sensitization) increases in female and male Long-Evans rats from 24 days of age (1-2 day latency) to 42 days of age (4-5 day latency). This decline in maternal responsiveness at Day 42 did not occur in 50% of rats ("responders") which lived with their dam and younger siblings (conceived during the postpartum estrus) for either 4 or 11-18 days after their birth. In contrast to cessation of suckling at about Day 25 postpartum in the absence of a 2nd litter, when a 2nd litter was born greater than Day 26 or less than Day 26 postpartum, suckling continued for a mean of 32 and 35.5 days, respectively (and up to Day 40). Also, time spent suckling during the 10 days following the birth of the 2nd litter was more than five times as great if the 2nd litter was born with little or no delay (less than Day 26). The offspring from the 1st litter spent about 80% of the diurnal observation time in proximity to the dam and younger siblings, and instances of nurturance (retrieving, crouching, licking) toward the young littermates were observed. However, the only dam-litter interaction significantly related to subsequent maternal responsiveness by 1st litter offspring was a positive relation between the prior incidence of aggression by mothers towards juveniles and sensitization latency.

Animals↗

PubMed2005

Estradiol receptor-alpha expression in hypothalamic and limbic regions of ewes is influenced by physiological state and maternal experience.

The influence of estrus, pregnancy, parturition, and maternal experience on the expression of estrogen receptor-alpha (ERalpha) was investigated in hypothalamic and limbic regions of the sheep brain, using immunocytochemistry. Four days before parturition, previous maternal experience was associated with a higher density of ERalpha-labeled neurons in the paraventricular and supraoptic nuclei, the medial preoptic area, and the medial amygdala, but not in the mediobasal hypothalamus. Furthermore, an interaction was found between physiological state and experience in the peripartum period as the effect of experience existing 4 days prepartum was not found at parturition, when densities were lowest both in primiparous and in multiparous ewes. An additional effect of physiological state was also observed between parturition and estrus, densities being significantly lower at parturition than at estrus in the SON, PVN, and MPOA, but not in the medial amygdala. These results indicate that in sheep ERalpha expression is influenced by previous physiological and/or maternal experience at specific times of the reproductive cycle. They are also congruent with the higher ability of multiparous than nulliparous ewes to show maternal behavior several days prepartum.

Amygdala↗

PubMed2002

Progesterone receptor expression in the pregnant and parturient rat hypothalamus and brainstem.

Oxytocin is synthesized by magnocellular neurons in the supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei (SON and PVN) and during pregnancy progesterone prevents premature activation of oxytocin neurons. Progesterone receptors (PR) are not detectable in SON oxytocin neurons of non-pregnant rats, so we sought to determine whether they are expressed during pregnancy and parturition. In addition, we examined PR expression in brainstem and hypothalamic regions that have known direct projections to the SON. Neuronal immunoreactive PR (irPR)-labeled nuclei were counted in sections from proestrous virgin, late pregnant (day 21) and parturient rats (90 min from birth onset). IrPR nuclei were not evident in the SON at any stage but irPR expression in the medial preoptic nucleus (MPA) significantly increased in pregnancy and parturition (159% and 189% of proestrous controls, respectively). Other hypothalamic areas did not exhibit a significant change in irPR expression. In the nucleus tractus solitarius (NTS) in the brainstem, there was no significant change in irPR in late pregnancy, but there was a significant reduction in irPR expression at parturition (22% of proestrous controls). Very few NTS neurons immunoreactive for tyrosine hydroxylase (irTH), and thus putatively noradrenergic, contained irPR. These findings taken with evidence that brainstem irTH neurons projecting to the SON are stimulated at parturition, whereas MPA cells projecting to the SON are not, suggest that any direct actions of progesterone or progesterone withdrawal on NTS or SON neurons are not mediated through the classical PR. Upregulation of PR expression in the MPA during pregnancy and parturition may relate to the onset of maternal behavior and/or regulation of GnRH neuronal activity.

Animals↗

PubMed1976

Birth order and sex of sibling as determinants of mother-infant interaction.

Mother-infant interaction was assessed on 32 first- and second-born siblings when each was 3 months old. Data were colleted during 2 6-hour naturalistic home observations using a modified time-sampling technique. The sample consisted of 4 equal-size subgroups of same and opposite sex sibling pairs. Results suggested that interaction between a mother and her infant varied depending on the birth order and gender of the infant. Mothers spent significantly less time in social, affectionate, and caretaking interaction (except for feeding activities) with their second borns than they had with their firstborns; this difference was greater if the second born was female. Certain patterns of maternal behaviors appeared to be stable from one sibling to the other. Different types of interaction between the mothers and their younger infants were related to attention-seeking behavior in the firstborn male and female siblings.

Adult↗

PubMed2005

A gain-of-function mutation in the GABA receptor produces synaptic and behavioral abnormalities in the mouse.

In mammalian species, inhibition in the brain is mediated predominantly by the activation of GABAA receptors. We report here changes in inhibitory synaptic function and behavior in a mouse line harboring a gain-of-function mutation at Serine 270 (S270) in the GABAA receptor alpha1 subunit. In recombinant alpha1beta2gamma2 receptors, replacement of S270 by Histidine (H) results in an increase in sensitivity to gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), and slowing of deactivation following transient activation by saturating concentrations of GABA. Heterozygous mice expressing the S270H mutation are hyper-responsive to human contact, exhibit intention tremor, smaller body size and reduced viability. These mice also displayed reduced motor coordination, were hypoactive in the home cage, but paradoxically were hyperactive in a novel open field environment. Heterozygous knockin mice of both sexes were fertile but females failed to care for offspring. This deficit in maternal behavior prevented production of homozygous animals. Recordings from brain slices prepared from these animals revealed a substantial prolongation of miniature inhibitory postsynaptic currents (IPSCs) and a loss of sensitivity to the anesthetic isoflurane, in neurons that express a substantial amount of the alpha1 subunit. The results suggest that the biophysical properties of GABAA receptors are important in determining the time-course of inhibition in vivo, and suggest that the duration of synaptic inhibition is a critical determinant that influences a variety of behaviors in the mouse.

Amino Acid Substitution↗

PubMed1992

Maternal differences in infant carriage in golden-headed lion tamarins (Leontopithecus chrysomelas).

Infant-carrying behaviour was observed in two families of captive golden-headed lion tamarins. Although the young were raised in almost identical social situations, we found a reversed involvement of mother-father pairs in the amount of time they carried their offspring. In one case, the parental division of carrying behaviour was consistent with the standard description for callitrichids in that the adult male was the primary carrier. In the other family, the mother carried the infant considerably more than the male. Comparison of transfer initiations and transfer times showed that maternal choice operated. It is suggested that maternal behavior may depend primarily on the female's physical and hormonal condition.

Animals↗

PubMed2005

Cocaine exposure is associated with subtle compromises of infants' and mothers' social-emotional behavior and dyadic features of their interaction in the face-to-face still-face paradigm.

Prenatal cocaine and opiate exposure are thought to subtly compromise social and emotional development. The authors observed a large sample of 236 cocaine-exposed and 459 nonexposed infants (49 were opiate exposed and 646 nonexposed) with their mothers in the face-to-face still-face paradigm. Infant and maternal behaviors were microanalytically coded. No opiate-exposure effects were detected. However, mothers of cocaine-exposed infants showed more negative engagement than other mothers. The cocaine-exposed dyads also showed higher overall levels of mismatched engagement states than other dyads, including more negative engagement when the infants were in states of neutral engagement. Infants exposed to heavier levels of cocaine showed more passive-withdrawn negative engagement and engaged in more negative affective matching with their mothers than other infants. Although effect sizes were small, cocaine exposure, especially heavy cocaine exposure, was associated with subtly negative interchanges, which may have a cumulative impact on infants' later development and their relationships with their mothers.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1986

Correlates and predictors of hyperactivity and aggression: a longitudinal study of parent-referred problem preschoolers.

Forty-six parent-referred problem 3-year-olds and 22 comparison children were assessed with parent report and observational measures; 54 were followed up at age 4, and 53 were followed again at age 6. Lower social class and greater family stress were associated with higher symptom ratings at initial referral and age 6 follow-up. Negative and directive maternal behavior and negative and noncompliant child behavior observed in the lab at age 3 were associated with higher maternal ratings of child aggression and hyperactivity; these observed behaviors continued to be highly predictive of maternal ratings of persistent problems at ages 4 and 6. A laboratory index of inattention and overactivity at intake also predicted hyperactivity ratings at age 6. These findings suggest that externalizing problems identified in early childhood are likely to persist when they are associated with more family disruption and a negative mother-child relationship.

Aggression↗

PubMed1992

Somatosensory control of the onset and retention of maternal responsiveness in primiparous Sprague-Dawley rats.

The role of perioral and ventral-trunk somatosensory stimulation from pups mediating the initial expression of maternal behavior and its long-term retention 8 days later, was investigated. Six groups of female rats were permitted to physically interact with four 1-5-day-old foster pups for 1 h, 36 h after Cesarean delivery on gestation day 21. Prior to this maternal experience, dams were subjected to: reduced cutaneous rostral snout sensitivity (anaptia) by injection of lidocaine into the mystacial pads; reduced ventral-trunk sensations by occlusion of the entire ventrum with a full spandex jacket; both manipulations; or control manipulations. Additional groups of females not receiving a maternal experience (inexperienced) also received the somatosensory deprivation or control manipulations. During retention testing, rats in the singly manipulated experienced groups exhibited reduced latencies to become maternal in comparison to their inexperienced counterparts (approximately 3 days vs. 8 days). However, rats previously rendered both anaptic and ventrally-occluded responded like inexperienced rats in showing a long latency to become maternal (8 days). Thus, reduction of either perioral or ventral somatosensory contact from pups did not block the maternal experience effect, but reduction of both of these inputs did.

Animals↗

PubMed1993

Evaluating housing systems for veal calves.

Limitations of space, diet, and social environment can impair the welfare of veal calves reared in intensive farms compared with those calves allowed to pasture with their dams. In intensive farms most of the animals are housed in tether stalls or in crates. Stalls that greatly restrict the behavior of calves are not an adequate housing system. If the crates are small enough to prevent calves from lying in a comfortable position, they also impair the welfare of calves and lower their growth rate and disease resistance. Social contacts are limited in crates with solid partitions, but even if this social isolation seems unnecessary, it does not have the long-term effects on social and maternal behavior previously described. Because mortality rate is lower in crates than in group pens, and considering the time a calf spends grooming itself and lying with its legs stretched, large crates with open partitions are an acceptable alternative to group housing. However, improving group pens by providing adequate floors and automated feeding systems should make that type of housing better than crates. Other types of veal production such as the rearing of the calves by their dams could also be promoted. Other factors interact with housing system to affect the welfare status of veal calves. Milk-only diets should be avoided, and it is necessary to provide calves with adequate roughage as a way to enrich their environment. Friesian calves adapt better to veal calf operations than do Salers calves, and this difference between breeds must be considered when designing housing systems. The age of veal calves at slaughter should be considered to avoid maintaining calves in a preruminant physiological state beyond the point of the naturally occurring transition.

Animal Welfare↗

PubMed1997

Adoption by captive parturient rhesus macaques: biological vs. adopted infants and the cost of being a "twin" and rearing "twins".

Four rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta) mothers each spontaneously adopted and reared an abandoned, unrelated neonate in addition to their own neonate. Data on relative time spent in maternal contact and who maintained proximity were collected for the biological and adopted "twins" and singleton control infants using focal animal sampling. Infant weight gain and the subsequent conception history for each mother were obtained for the following year. Biological infants spent more time in maternal contact than their adopted "twin" siblings. When in contact with their mothers, biological "twins" spent more time in the ventro-ventral position and more ventral time alone than adoptees. Mothers initiated more contacts with their biological infants than their adopted infants, suggesting these differences may be due to differential maternal behavior. "Twins" gained weight at a slower rate than singletons, and mothers rearing "twins" produced significantly fewer offspring the following season.

Adoption↗

PubMed2004

Mother-Infant Interactions in Rats Lacking CCK(A) Receptors.

Mediation of mother-infant interactions by the brain-gut peptide cholecystokinin (CCK) was examined by observing behavior of Otsuka Long-Evans Tokushima Fatty (OLETF) rats, which lack functional CCKA receptors because of a genetic abnormality. OLETF (n = 10) and control (Long-Evans Tokushima Otsuka [LETO] n = 10) dams interacted with 1 pup of each line on Postpartum Days 6-9. OLETF pups received more body and anogenital licking and emitted substantially more ultrasonic vocalizations than LETO pups. OLETF dams carried pups less frequently and showed a nursing position more frequently than LETO dams. No significant Pup X Dam Line interactions or line differences in dams' activity were detected. The results provide convergent validity to previous pharmacological studies implicating CCK mediation of both infant and maternal behavior.

Animals↗

PubMed2004

Physiological predictors of reproductive outcome and mother-infant behaviors in captive rhesus macaque females (Macaca mulatta).

Previous research has shown that offspring of females with low cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA) concentrations are less likely to survive the first year of life than are offspring of females with high CSF 5-HIAA concentrations. In addition, studies of free-ranging rhesus macaque males have suggested that individuals with low CSF 5-HIAA concentrations suffer reduced reproductive success relative to their high serotonin counterparts. We examined CSF concentrations of the monoamine metabolites 5-HIAA and homovanillic acid (HVA), and plasma cortisol concentrations as predictors of first-time adult reproductive potential, maternal behavior, and overall social interactions in two groups of captive female rhesus macaques and their first offspring. Repeated CSF and blood samples were obtained from adult females in two social groups, and focal observations were performed for both new mothers and infants during the first month following parturition. We found that the reproductively aged nulliparous females who failed to give birth to their first offspring showed significantly lower CSF 5-HIAA concentrations than those females who gave birth. Among those females that gave birth to offspring, females with low CSF 5-HIAA concentrations and females with high plasma cortisol concentrations were overly protective and restrictive with their infants. CSF HVA concentration was not associated with reproductive output, social behavior, aggression, or mother-infant interactions in this sample of rhesus macaque females. We conclude that low CNS serotonin activity and high stress, measured by high plasma cortisol, are correlated with reduced reproductive success and patterns of high maternal restrictiveness in young adult female rhesus macaques.

Aggression↗

PubMed1997

Selective enhancement of emotional, but not motor, learning in monoamine oxidase A-deficient mice.

Mice deficient in monoamine oxidase A (MAOA), an enzyme that metabolizes monoamines such as norepinephrine and serotonin, have elevated norepinephrine and serotonin levels in the frontal cortex, hippocampus, and cerebellum, compared with normal wild-type mice. Since monoamines in these areas are critically involved in a variety of behaviors, we examined learning and memory (using emotional and motor tasks) in MAOA mutant mice. The MAOA-deficient mice exhibited significantly enhanced classical fear conditioning (freezing to both tone and contextual stimuli) and step-down inhibitory avoidance learning. In contrast, eyeblink conditioning was normal in these mutant mice. The female MAOA-deficient mice also displayed normal species-typical maternal behaviors (nesting, nursing, and pup retrieval). These results suggest that chronic elevations of monoamines, due to a deletion of the gene encoding MAOA, lead to selective alterations in emotional behavior.

Animals↗

PubMed1989

Maternal support following disclosure of incest.

The level of maternal support to incest victims following disclosure was found to be more closely related to perpetrator than to child characteristics. Lack of maternal support was significantly associated with foster placement and higher psychopathology scores in a clinical interview. Evidence is presented challenging the validity of maternal behavioral reports in assessments of incest victims.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2004

Corticotropin-releasing factor inhibits maternal aggression in mice.

Lactating females that fiercely protect offspring exhibit decreased fear and anxiety. The authors tested whether decreased corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF), an activator of fear and anxiety, plays a functional role in maternal aggression. Intracerebroventricular (icv) injections of CRF (1.0 and 0.2 microg, but not 0.02 microg) significantly inhibited maternal aggression but not other maternal behaviors. The CRF antagonist D-Phe-CRF(12-41) had no effect. Maternal aggression and icv CRF (0.2 microg) induced Fos in 11 of the same regions, including the lateral and medial septum, the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, the medial and central amygdala, the periaqueductal gray, the dorsal raphe, and the locus coeruleus. These findings suggest that decreased CRF is necessary for maternal aggression and may act by altering brain activity in response to an intruder.

Aggression↗