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PubMed2001

Effect of training on accumulated oxygen deficit and shuttle run performance.

BACKGROUND: The purpose of the present study was to investigate changes in physiological, metabolic and performance parameters resulting from an intense 6 week training programme. METHODS: Sixteen volunteers were divided into a control (CN; 4 men and 2 women) and training group (TR; 6 men and 4 women). Laboratory measures included maximal aerobic power (VO2max), submaximal oxygen uptake (10.5 percent or 6 degrees treadmill inclination) and accumulated oxygen deficit (AOD). Performance was assessed during 20 metre shuttle run tests (PST, progressive shuttle run test; HIST, high intensity shuttle run test). RESULTS: TR improved their HIST performance (m) significantly compared with CN, identified by a significant "group-by-training" interaction (p<0.01). Similarly, AOD values improved more in TR compared with CN (p<0.01). There was a trend for TR to further reduce blood pH values after training compared with CN, although this decrease (approximately 0.05 units) did not attain statistical significance. The change in AOD was strongly correlated with the change in run time to exhaustion (r=0.76, p<0.01) and the change in estimated total work output (r=0.69, p<0.01) during 10.5 percent gradient running and modestly correlated with the change in HIST performance (r=0.49, p<0.05, assuming a directional test). CONCLUSIONS: The results of the present study suggest changes in the anaerobic capacity, determined as AOD, due to training may be reflected in corresponding changes in laboratory and field performance.

Adult↗

PubMed2001

The relationship between field tests of anaerobic power and 10-km run performance.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between several field tests of anaerobic power and distance running performance. Thirty-six trained runners (20 men and 16 women; mean +/- SD age, 27.9 +/- 5.7 years) participated in this study. Tests of anaerobic power consisted of a 50-m sprint, vertical jumps from a static take-off position and with a countermovement, a plyometric leap test, and a 300-m sprint. The results indicated that gender, height, weight, percent body fat, 50-m sprint time, the height and power of both types of vertical jumps, plyometric leap distance, and the 300-m sprint time were significantly correlated with 10-km run time (p < or = 0.05) in the total subject pool (N = 36). Stepwise multiple regression identified the plyometric leap distance to explain 73.9% of the variance in run time. When combined with 300-m sprint time, 77.9% of the variance (standard error of the estimate, 2.92 minutes) was explained. The regression equation developed is Y' (10-km time) = 57.22 - 5.15(plyometric leap distance in meters) + 0.27(300-m sprint time in seconds). The results indicate that anaerobic power is significantly related to distance running performance and may explain a meaningful percentage of variability in 10-km run time. Therefore, it may be beneficial for distance runners to supplement aerobic training with some power and speed development such as plyometrics and sprinting.

Adult↗

PubMed2002

Hormone plasma levels from pituitary-gonadal axis in performance athletes after the 400 m run.

BACKGROUND: The aim of this study was to compare the concentration changes in hormones from pituitary - gonadal axis, induced by the 400 m run in the well-trained athletes (vice-champions in the Hall and Summer Athletic World Championship in 1999) to the changes observed in the competitors with shorter training period and achieving worse final results. METHODS: This research was conducted on 6 males - members of the Polish Olympic Team, who won vice-championship in the Hall and Summer World Championships 1999 and 6 athletes trained in the academic sport clubs. In the recent investigation, the 400 m run was assumed to be a stimulating impulse for evoking hormonal changes. The blood samples were taken from the elbow vein before the run, immediately after the effort and after the 24-hour rest. In the serum, the luteinizing hormone (LH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), total testosterone (TT), free testosterone (FT) as well as the sex hormones-binding globulin (SHBG) concentrations were determined. RESULTS: During our research, immediately after the 400 m run in group I - the top class sportsmen - the statistically significant increase in both gonadotrophins (LH, FSH) was determined as well as the decrease in the total and free testosterone. In the group II - the athletes with the lower training level - the increase in FSH and the total and free testosterone concentrations was noticed. There were no statistically significant differences in the SHBG concentration. After-effort increase in the lactic acid concentration was observed in both groups. In the master group I, the increase in lactic acid concentration was higher than in group II. In both groups after the 24-hour restitution, the examined parameters, except LH levels in the group I, showed the concentrations similar to those before the effort. Analysis of the time needed to cover the distance of the race showed that the athletes from group I covered the distance of 400 m in the shorter time. CONCLUSIONS: The group of master class athletes, whose average intensive training period was 8 years, had higher VO(2max) and higher after-effort increase in the lactic acid concentration than in the group of sportsmen with the shorter training period (4 years), who had lower VO(2max), worse sport results and lower after-effort increase in the lactic acid concentration, gave different hormonal response (particularly TT, FT concentration) for the same exercise impulse. The difference based on the fact, that after the run in group I the decrease in the total and free testosterone levels and in group II the increase in the same parameters were observed. The observed hormonal changes in the master class athletes induced by the years-long anaerobic training might provide evidence for the reduction of functional reserves in gonads when compared to the group of less trained sportsmen.

Adult↗

PubMed2002

Influence of changes in nasal ventilation on estimated workload during submaximal field running.

BACKGROUND: Breathe Right (BR) external nasal dilator have become increasingly popular over the past few years, however, the physiological basis for using BR remains unclear. We have examined whether alteration in nasal ventilation would influence the metabolic cost of submaximal running. METHODS: Metabolic cost was estimated in 10 male endurance triathletes by measuring heart rate (HR) and exercise perception by measuring the rate of perceived exertion (RPE) during submaximal field running. The protocol consisted of 5 min of running at 80% of their maximal aerobic velocity (MAV(f), previously determined under field conditions) for three randomised experimental conditions, separated by a 10 min rest. The conditions were normal nasal ventilation (N), no nasal ventilation (using a nose clip) (NC) and with a BR. RESULTS: Running with the BR or with NC did not significantly influence HR (N: 173+/-7, BR: 173+/-8, NC: 172+/-7 beat x min(-1); F=0.01, p=0.99) or RPE (N: 12.1+/-1.7, BR: 11.8+/-1.9, NC: 13.2+/-0.8; F=1.88, p=0.18). We conclude that alteration in nasal ventilation produced by using BR or NC do not influence HR or RPE in a group of triathletes running 5 min at 80% of MAV(f). CONCLUSIONS: The present study tended to demonstrate that both nasal ventilation would not influence the total metabolic cost, and that the BR device is not advantageous during high intensity exercise.

Adult↗

PubMed1976

Aerobic requirements and maximum aerobic power in treadmill and track running.

Treadmill and track running comparisons were made on eight track athletes. Oxygen uptake (VO2) during steady-state and maximum aerobic power (VO2 max) were measured in a discrete series of three speeds, and at maximal effort. Running speeds were always in sequence from slowest to fastest. Expired air was collected from the runner by the Douglas-bag method, and analyzed by the Lloyd-Haldane technique. Neither VO2 max nor aerobic requirements of running were significantly different in track and treadmill determinations. There were several correlations: 1) VO2 max with body weight (r = .83 P less than .02), 2) treadmill and track determinations of VO2 max (r = .95, P less than .01) and 3) VO2 ml/kg with running velocity m/min (r = .91, P less than .01) where the regression was linear and may be represented by the equation Y = 5.36 + 0.172X, where Syx = 2.7 m102/kg. It is concluded that treadmill determinations of oxygen uptake may be validly applied to track running in calm air within the range of 180...260 m/min.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1992

Effects of arch height of the foot on ground reaction forces in running.

There is a suggested link between running injuries and arch type of the foot. However, a distinct cause and effect relationship has not been established. Feet may be functionally categorized on the basis of arch height. The purpose of this study was to compare selected ground reaction force variables in running for different arch heights. Static height of the medial longitudinal arch was measured using a caliper, arch flattening during running was determined by video analysis, and ground reaction forces during running were recorded from a KISTLER force plate. Thirty-four subjects were divided into three arch height and three arch flattening groups, and single-factor analyses of variance were conducted to compare the groups. Arch height and arch flattening were not found to be significantly related. However, the initial medial force peak in the low arch group occurred significantly later than in the normal and high arch groups, and the anterior force peak in the low flattening group was lower compared with the medium and high flattening groups (P < 0.05). Both arch measurements were ineffective in accounting for the observed variability in the ground reaction forces in running. Specifically, the impact forces did not differ for the different arch height and arch lowering groups.

Adult↗

PubMed1992

The relationship between anaerobic running capacity and peak plasma lactate.

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between anaerobic running capacity and peak plasma lactate. Twelve adult males (mean age +/- SD = 21.9 +/- 1.2 yrs) performed a critical velocity test from which anaerobic running capacity was determined and a maximal treadmill running test from which peak plasma lactate was determined from post-exercise blood samples taken at one minute intervals. The results indicated that anaerobic running capacity (mean +/- SD = 0.18 +/- 0.04 km) was not significantly (r = -0.06, p greater than 0.05) correlated with peak plasma lactate (9.3 +/- 1.8 mM). These findings do not support anaerobic running capacity as an indirect indicator of anaerobic capabilities.

Adult↗

PubMed1992

Running economy of elite male and elite female runners.

Twenty female and 45 male middle and long-distance runners, in training for the U.S. Olympic Trials, served as subjects. Ninety percent of both men and women subjects reached the Trials; eight women and 12 men qualified for the Olympic Games and five won medals. Each subject completed a VO2max and a series of submax treadmill runs, for the purpose of comparing heart rate (HR), VO2, and blood lactate (HLa) among men and women and among runners of various event specialties. Results showed the men to be taller, heavier, to have a lower six-site skinfold sum and a higher VO2max, than the women (P less than 0.05); there was no difference in age. When compared in running economy, men used less oxygen (ml.min-1.kg-1) at common absolute velocities, but VO2 (ml.km-1.kg-1) was not different between men and women at equal relative intensities (%VO2max). When men and women of equal VO2max were compared, the men were significantly more economical, using any method of comparison. Also, when comparisons of men and women of equal economy were made, it was found that the men had an even greater advantage over the "matched" women subjects than the mean VO2max comparison using all subjects. In looking at the SD (800-/1500-m runners), MD (3-K/5-K/10-K runners) and LD (marathon runners), it was found that the SD runners used the least oxygen (ml.min-1.kg-1) at speeds of marathon race pace and faster, but not at slower speeds. Men and women responded similarly in this regard. Running economy data for speeds slower than typical race paces, tended to show the LD runners to be most economical, suggesting that the speeds over which runners are tested plays an important part in determining which subjects are the most economical. It was concluded that at absolute running velocities, men are more economical than women, but when expressed in ml.km-1.kg-1 there are no gender differences at similar relative intensities of running. Also, when men and women of equal VO2max or equal economy are matched, the men show a better aerobic profile. It is recommended that economy data be collected up to speeds equal to over 90% VO2max.

Adult↗

PubMed2005

The changes in running performance and maximal oxygen uptake after long-term training in elite athletes.

AIM: The relationship between VO2max (mL x kg(-1) x min(-1)) and running performance has been assessed in cross-sectional studies. Follow-up studies of the long-term effects of running training on the changes in performance and VO2max have not been undertaken. METHODS: Twenty-five male endurance-trained (MET) and 8 female endurance-trained (FET) athletes were tracked over 4 years. In each event the athletes were divided into Class A, including half the number of athletes with the best performances, and Class B. VO2max, examined at the end of the competitive season, and the best performance was chosen each year. RESULTS: After 3 years of training, in MET and FET athletes the performance improved by 1.77% and 0.69% (P<0.01 and P=0.579), respectively. In Class A runners, training resulted in non-significant increase in performance (-0.04%) (P=0.982) and in Class B runners, performance increased by 3.16% (P=0.001). In all groups VO(2max) remained essentially unchanged. Longitudinal changes in the VO2max were not related with the changes in running performance in any group. CONCLUSIONS: This study show than in older runners with more years of training, heavy training does not produce improvements in running performance neither changes in the VO2max. It is possible that these elite athletes have reached the plateau in their performance; although unlikely, some improvement in training techniques may happen and break the present limit. In younger runners with less years of training, heavy training produce improvements in running performance without changes in the VO2max. These athletes that had not attained his biological limits at the beginning of study improved the performance in competition and it is quite probable that this improvement be due to training. The changes in performance were not related to changes in VO2max. Consequently, another physiological or psychological variables must be studied by longitudinal form to explain the variability of performance in competition.

Adaptation, Physiological↗

PubMed2005

Relationships and significance of lactate minimum, critical velocity, heart rate deflection and 3 000 m track-tests for running.

AIM: The running velocities associated to lactate minimum (V(lm)), heart rate deflection (V(HRd)), critical velocity (CV), 3.000 m (V(3000)) and 10 000 m performance (V10km) were compared. Additionally the ability of V(lm) and V(HRd) on identifying sustainable velocities was investigated. METHODS: Twenty runners (28.5+/-5.9 y) performed 1) 3,000 m running test for V3000; 2) an all-out 500 m sprint followed by 6x800 m incremental bouts with blood lactate ([lac]) measurements for V(lm); 3) a continuous velocity-incremented test with heart rate measurements at each 200 m for V(HRd); 4) participants attempted to 30 min of endurance test both at V(lm)(ETV(lm)) and V(HRd)(ETV(HRd)). Additionally, the distance-time and velocity-1/time relationships produced CV by 2 (500 m and 3 000 m) or 3 predictive trials (500 m, 3,000 m and distance reached before exhaustion during ETV(HRd)), and a 10 km race was recorded for V10km. RESULTS: The CV identified by different methods did not differ to each other. The results (m.min(-1)) revealed that V(lm) (281+/-14.8)<CV (292.1+/-17.5)=V10km (291.7+/-19.3)<V(HRd) (300.8+/-18.7)=V3000 (304+/-17.5) with high correlation among parameters (P<0.001). During ETVlm participants completed 30 min of running while on the ETV(HRd) they lasted only 12.5+/-8.2 min with increasing [lac]. CONCLUSIONS: We evidenced that CV and Vlm track-protocols are valid for running evaluation and performance prediction and the parameters studied have different significance. The V(lm) reflects the moderate-high intensity domain (below CV), can be sustained without [lac] accumulation and may be used for long-term exercise while the V(HRd)overestimates a running intensity that can be sustained for long-time. Additionally, V3000 and V(HRd) reflect the severe intensity domain (above CV).

Adult↗

PubMed2006

Comparison of the VO2 response to 800-m, 1500-m and 3000-m track running events.

AIM: The present study examined the VO2 response to middle-distance track running events of 800 m, 1500 m and 3000 m and investigated the relationship between the speed of the VO2 response ((1) and subsequent race performance. METHODS: Trained 3000-m (n = 8), 1500-m (n = 10) and 800-m (n = 8) male track athletes performed a laboratory GXT plus a run at 14 km x h(-1) and multiple race time trials. For each subject, a bi-exponential model fit from 20 s was used to categorise the O2 response for the best performed track run and also the treadmill run at 14 km x h(-1). RESULTS: Faster (1 values were noted the shorter the track event, with values of 14, 18.5 and 20.8 s for 800-, 1500- and 3000-m events, respectively. ANOVA results revealed that differences in (1 were significant (P < 0.05) for the 800- and 3000-m, but not for the 800- and 1500-m (P = 0.06) or 1500- and 3000-m events (P = 0.15). Only 1500-m race performance was significantly correlated to race (1 (r = 0.71). Values for (1 at an absolute velocity treadmill run (14 km x h(-1)) did not differ significantly between different events and were not correlated to race performance for any event. From pooled data for all three events, significant correlations (P < 0.01) were noted between tau1 and the speed over the first 800-m (r = -0.54 to -0.68). CONCLUSIONS: There was a trend for faster (1values the shorter the track event. The significant correlation between tau1 and initial starting velocity suggests this may be attributed to the faster starting velocity of the shorter track events, rather than any differences between athletes per se.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2006

Analysis of human walking and running parameters as a function of speed.

Recently, there has been great improvement in the field of movement analysis, which is a worldwide tendency. There is a continuous improvement of new methods, combined with traditional ones. In the last few years, we have managed to set up a modern, absolutely up-to-date motion analysis laboratory at the Budapest University of Technology and Economics (BUTE). The primary purpose of this study was to determine usual walking and running parameters as a function of speed and compare our results with the data of other studies. We tested the gait and running characteristics of people at different speeds, measuring the usual parameters of walking and running. On the basis of these measurements, we observed the interrelation of the three main parameters of gait and running (speed, cadence, stride length) and determined the dependence of cadence and stride length on speed as well. The determined energetically optimal walking speed (EOWS) and the usual walking speed (UWS) correlate well with the values in literature. Our measurements were performed on a running corridor, and at the facilities provided by the Biomechanical Laboratory, including an instrumented treadmill connected to the measurement system.

Acceleration↗

PubMed2006

Gravity replacement during running in simulated microgravity.

INTRODUCTION: During treadmill exercise on the International Space Station (ISS), a restoring load from a subject load device (SLD) is applied through a shoulder-and-waist harness to pull the exercising crewmember toward the treadmill surface. The capacity of this arrangement to provide 1-g-like reaction forces may be critical for effective use of the treadmill as a countermeasure to musculoskeletal changes during prolonged spaceflight. This study in simulated microgravity evaluated the comfort and function during running of the ISS harness used with a new SLD in a system that allows more even distribution of the load between the waist and shoulders. METHODS: Using a zero-gravity locomotion simulator, 12 subjects completed three 5-min running trials at a constant speed (3.35 m x s(-1)) using three SLD loads [50%, 75%, and 100% of bodyweight (BW)] presented at random and a shoulder-to-waist loading ratio of 50:50. Subjective ratings of discomfort, ground reaction forces (GRFs), and SLD loads were collected. RESULTS: A load of 100% BW resulted in similar GRF profiles (peak and rate of change of force) to those reported for 1-g running over ground and were also comfortably tolerated (mean Borg scale rating 3.9/10). DISCUSSION: With an appropriate harness and SLD system, 1-g-like GRF profiles can be generated at the feet during simulated microgravity running. Such forces can be achieved with a level of discomfort rated better than "somewhat uncomfortable," suggesting that running with 1-g loads could be an effective component of musculoskeletal countermeasures during long-duration spaceflight.

Adult↗

PubMed1991

Psychological and medical factors associated with pain running.

This study found that 56% of 370 runners sampled push themselves during running until they feel pain. These pain runners were more likely to be male, taller, heavier, and younger than nonpain runners. They were also more likely to be running for competition and less likely for improved health than nonpain runners. Pain runners took significantly more risks when running, and they were significantly higher on 17 of 23 medical symptoms than nonpain runners. Regression analyses showed that pushing to pain during running was a significant predictor of cardiovascular/respiratory, musculoskeletal, and autonomic nervous system symptom factors. Pain runners also reported significantly more death thoughts and death anxiety on the Dickstein Death Concern Scale than nonpain runners. Finally, pain runners did not significantly differ from nonpain runners on their running statistics.

Adult↗

PubMed1990

[Arthrosis of the lower limb and running].

In order to assess whether running training for many years predisposes to arthrosis in the lower limbs, the hips, knees and ankle joints of 30 runners who began running training at the beginning of the nineteen fifties were examined. Three of these runners were no longer active. One of these had given up late in the nineteen seventies on account of arthroses in the upper and lower limbs i.e. changes which can scarecely be attributed to the stresses of running. The remaining 27 (90%) had run 20-40 km/week throughout 40 years. Subjective, objective and radiological data were compared with data from 27 non-active control persons who were comparable as regards age, weight/height and occupational stress with the runners. We found no differences in joint mobility, axial deviations or complaints of pain between the two groups. Radiologically, the distances between the osseous joint surfaces in the hip and ankle joints and the degrees of degeneration in the knees were assessed according to Ahlback's classification without any differences being found between the groups. Our results suggest that running training to a moderate extent for many years does not predispose to arthrosis in the lower limbs in healthy individuals.

Adult↗

PubMed1990

Oxygen uptake and heart rate responses to treadmill and water running.

The relationship between heart rate (HR) and oxygen uptake (VO2) was assessed during treadmill running and during running-like motions in water without ground support. Athletes self-selected easy, moderate and hard efforts during water running. While there was a linear relationship between HR and VO2 in both exercise conditions, there was considerable between-subject variability of the slope and intercept of the linear regressions. These data are taken to indicate that HR for a given VO2 during water compared to land running is influenced in large part by the skill of the athlete in the water running activity.

Adult↗

PubMed1990

Assessment of the 2.4 km run as a predictor of aerobic capacity.

Since the 2.4 km run time test is routinely used in military training programmes as an indicator of aerobic capacity and its possible improvement, an attempt was made to: (i) establish a regression equation of VO2max v. 2.4 km run time in a group of 20 young military volunteers; and (ii) determine whether this equation could be used to predict VO2max reliably from the 2.4 km time obtained from another group. Before and after training, VO2max was measured in all subjects using a treadmill test, and 2.4 km run time was determined in the field. Linear regression equations using the 2.4 km run time as the independent variable accounted for 76-92% of the variance in VO2max, while the standard error of the estimate varied from 2.24-2.91 ml/kg/min. In the second test group, the directly measured VO2max was 59.89 +/- 0.99 ml/kg/min, while the mean value estimated from the regression equation of the first group was 59.61 +/- 1.16 ml/kg/min (P less than 0.001). It was concluded that, in the population studied, the 2.4 km run time in the field reliably predicts VO2max measured during treadmill exercise in the laboratory.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1989

Ankle and wrist weights: their effect on physiologic responses during treadmill running.

This study examined the effects of ankle and wrist weights on acute physiologic responses during treadmill running. Eight physically active young men completed eight running tests at their predetermined "most comfortable" speeds with zero, 1.6, 3.2, and 4.8 kg of additional weight equally distributed on the ankles or wrists. Energy expenditure and heart rate increased as a linear function of the additional weight placed at both anatomic locations. The magnitudes of these responses were significantly higher with the weights at the ankles than at the wrists, and were independent of the strength and endurance of the pertinent muscle groups involved in overcoming the additional weight. Blood lactate concentrations tended to increase during the loaded runs. However, the values were not significantly different from those observed during control (zero load) runs. Perceived exertion increased significantly over the control value when the heaviest weights were placed at the ankles and wrists. Since ankle and wrist weights increase training intensity and energy expenditure during treadmill running, they may result in greater increases in cardiovascular fitness and greater weight loss than would be realized by training without their use.

Adult↗